vault backup: 2026-08-12 06:06:12
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[[Macromolecules]]
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# General Overview
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first thing to think of when hearing carbohydrates is sweet
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generally sweet and water soluable
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primarly composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen, general formula of $C_xH_{2x}O_x$, 1:2:1 ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen
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monomers are monosaccharides/simple sugars, polymers are polysaccharides/complex sugars.
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# Structure
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most commonly found in ring like structures and used for quick energy or cell walls in plant cells
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![[Pasted image 20260811133313.png]]
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most monosaccharides look the same with small deviations
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polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides binded together with glycosidic bonds, which is a covalent bond joining sugar with another group
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polysaccharides are differentiated by the orientation of the monomers
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# Function
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![[Pasted image 20260811133445.png]]
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in starch all the monomers are oriented in the same way, while in celluose they alternate
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carbohydrates serve 2 purposes, quick energy and cell structure. the highlighted oh groups in the image are to show different purposes, in celluose they alternate because then they can stack on each other and create rigid cell walls. having the oh on the same side makes them not pack so tightly, making them easier to seperate into monomers
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# Summary
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|Structure|Monomer / Polymer Name|Function|
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|---|---|---|
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|Ring-like. Contain C, H, O|Monosaccharide / Polysaccharide|1) Energy storage <br>2) Make up cell walls|
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[[chemistry of life]]
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6 main elements in biology, chnops
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**C**arbon
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**H**ydrogen
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**N**itrogen
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**O**xygen
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**P**hosphorous
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**S**ulfur
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cho are the most common, theyre found in most biology molecules
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carbon is special because:
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1. can form long chains
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2. likes to form double bonds
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3. ring like structures
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![[Pasted image 20260810213947.png]]
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[[Macromolecules]]
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[[biology]]
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macromolecules are essentially very large molecules
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macromolecules consist of smaller subunits, called monomers, when you have a bunch of monomers together it's called a polymer
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these 4 types of macromolecules are pretty important in ap bio:
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| Type | Monomer Name | Polymer Name | Primary Cellular Function | CHNOPS Generally Present |
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| ------------ | --------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------ |
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| Carbohydrate | Monosaccharide | Polysaccharide | Quick energy | C, H, O |
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| Lipid | No single name, examples include Fatty Acids and Glycerol | No single name, examples include triglycerides and phospholipids | Cell membrane bilayer, cell signaling, long-term energy storage (fat) | C, H, O |
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| Protein | Amino acid | Polypeptide | Various functions | C, H, O, N, S |
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| Nucleic Acid | Nucleotide | DNA / RNA | Store and transmit genetic information | C, H, O, N, P |
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| | | | | |
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macromolecules are **allegedly** hard to understand, apparently theyre kind of like a train and it's carriages
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![[Pasted image 20260810215125.png]]
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monomers break from each other using **hydrolysis**, where a water atom forces its way in a breaks off into a hydrogen atom and a hydroxide. It's derived from greek, with hydro meaning water and lysis to break
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![[Pasted image 20260810215131.png]]
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monomers connect to each other using **dehydration synthesis**, where the hydrogen and hydroxide at the ends of monomers bind to form a water molecule which is removed after, reforming the bond.
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[[biology]]
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chemistry and life somewhat go hand in hand
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[[chemistry of life]]
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covalents are 0-0.5 difference in electronegativities
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polar covalents are 0.5 - 2
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Ionics are 2+
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hydrogen bonds are when a hydrogen atom in one molecule is highly attracted to an atom with high electronegativity in another molecule.
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hydrogen bonds are rather weak, water uses hydrogen bonds
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**properties of water:**
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1. cohesion
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2. adhesion
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3. high heat capacity
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4. high surface tension
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adhesion is a result of the polarity, as the imbalance of charge allows the molecules to bind to other things easily
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high heat capacity results from heat energy being used to break and disrupt the hydrogen bonds, inadvertently losing some of the heat
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surface tension results from hydrogen bonds
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**ph**
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ph measures how acidic or basic a solution is
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![[Pasted image 20260810212842.png]]"**==Acids==** donate protons (Hydrogens) to **==bases==**, which are hydrogen/proton acceptors. Let’s use the self ionization of water pictured above as an example. One of the water molecules is acting as an acid and donating an H+ ion (proton) to the other water molecule, which is the base. This forms a hydronium ion (H3O+) and a hydroxide ion (OH−)."
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solutions with more hydroniums than hydroxides are acidic, and the other way
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![[Pasted image 20260810213049.png]]
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$pH=-\log[H^+]$
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where $H^+$ is the hydronium concentration in the solution
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pH has an opposite, pOH
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by definition the pH + pOH of a solution will always equal 14
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