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origins of cell compartmentalization

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2026-08-16 07:44:48 -04:00
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biology/Cell Structure and Function/Cell Structure and Function.md
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[[biology]]
biology/Cell Structure and Function/Origins of Cell Compartmentalization.md
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[[Cell Structure and Function]]
## Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Compartmentalization
Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, while prokaryotic lacks these and has DNA free in the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic properties:
* Nucleoid region - circular dna not wrapped in membranes
* Ribosomes - protein making structures that are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
* Plasmids - small rings of extra dna separate from the main chromosome
* Inclusion bodies - storage for nutrients
* Thylakoid membrane - in photosynthetic bacteria, membranes that capture light
Eukaryotic properties:
* Nucleus - hold and protect dna
* Mitochondria - site of aerobic cellular respiration
* chloroplast - site of photosynthesis
* Endoplasmic reticulum - protein and lipid synthesis, as well as transportation
* golgi complex - folds modifies and ships cellular packages
* lysosomes - contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest material
Internal membranes allow a cell to run reactions that would otherwise be interfered with each other.
## Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiotic theory is essentially mitochondria and chloroplast evolved from a prokaryotic cell being taken inside a larger host cell.
The theory is an early ancestor of a eukaryotic cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell and kept it.
Endo means inside and symbiotic means together.
Two major events:
1. Mitochondria came first, a host cell engulfed a aerobic bacterium which used oxygen to generate energy efficiently, giving the host cell the ability to produce ATP.
2. Chloroplast came after, a cell already containing a mitochondria engulfed a photosynthetic bacterium, allowing it to make food from sunlight.
Engulfed cells helped the big cell survive, so cells with these internal partners survived and the trait spread, allowing for complex eukaryotic cells.
## Evidence for Endosymbiosis
Strongest evidence is that chloroplast and mitochondria look like the bacteria they came from.
* mitochondria and chloroplast carry their own dna, and it's circular like the bacteria
* both have double membranes, one from the original prokaryotic cells and another for when the plasma engulfed it.
* same size as bacteria and split seperately from rest of cell
* ribosomes are more like bacteria ribosomes than the host cell ribosomes
* some make their own proteins
![[Pasted image 20260816073410.png]]
## From Free-Living Bacteria to Dependent Organelles
Essentially, they're kinda like if a guy who lived in the woods and hunted for everything moved to the city and started buying stuff. Now he only has to hunt but doesn't have to stoke the fire or repair the house. The bacteria no longer has to live on its own but became specialized into getting food for the cell.
It's a 2 way lock, the organelles can't survive without the eukaryotic cell, the eukaryotic cell can't survive without them.
## Key Concepts and Vocabulary
- **Endosymbiosis**: a relationship where one organism lives inside another; the process by which mitochondria and chloroplasts originated.
- **Endosymbiotic theory**: the explanation that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from free-living prokaryotic cells engulfed by a host cell.
- **Prokaryotic cell**: a cell that lacks membrane-bound organelles and keeps its DNA in a nucleoid region.
- **Eukaryotic cell**: a cell with internal membranes that partition it into specialized, membrane-bound compartments.
- **Compartmentalization**: dividing the cell into separate regions so reactions can occur without interfering with each other.
- **Nucleoid**: the region in a prokaryote where the circular DNA is located, not enclosed by a membrane.
- **Mitochondria**: double-membraned organelles that are the site of aerobic cellular respiration; descended from aerobic bacteria.
- **Chloroplasts**: double-membraned organelles in plants and algae that carry out photosynthesis; descended from photosynthetic bacteria.
- **Double membrane**: the two-layered membrane of mitochondria and chloroplasts; the inner layer from the engulfed prokaryote, the outer from the host.
- **Circular DNA**: the ring-shaped genetic material found in bacteria and in mitochondria and chloroplasts, evidence of their bacterial ancestry.
- **Binary fission**: the splitting-in-two reproduction used by bacteria and by mitochondria and chloroplasts.
- **Thylakoid**: an internal membrane in photosynthetic bacteria (and chloroplasts) where light is captured.
- **Plasmid**: a small ring of extra DNA in prokaryotes, separate from the main chromosome.
- **Host cell**: the larger ancestral cell that engulfed the prokaryotes that became organelles.
## Common Mistakes
- **Saying prokaryotes have no organization.** They lack membrane-bound organelles, but they do have specialized regions like the nucleoid, ribosomes, plasmids, and thylakoids. Don't confuse "no membrane-bound organelles" with "no internal structure."
- **Forgetting the order of events.** Mitochondria evolved first, then chloroplasts. That's why animals have mitochondria but no chloroplasts, while plants and algae have both.
- **Listing evidence without connecting it.** Naming "double membrane" or "own DNA" isn't enough on an FRQ. Tie each clue to the conclusion: circular DNA resembling bacterial DNA supports a free-living prokaryotic origin.
- **Mixing up which membrane came from where.** On a mitochondrion or chloroplast, the inner membrane comes from the engulfed prokaryote and the outer membrane comes from the host cell.
- **Leaning on the "cell city" analogy on the exam.** Power plants and shipping centers help you learn, but graders want real biology terms. Write "mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration," not "mitochondria are the power plant."
- **Calling endosymbiosis a one-time digestion event.** The engulfed cell wasn't digested. It survived, kept functioning, and over time transferred genes to the host nucleus, creating a permanent dependent partnership.
biology/Chemistry of Life/structure of water and hydrogen bonding.md
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[[chemistry of life]]
# SUMMARY
## Key Takeaways
- Water is polar because the O-H bonds are polar covalent, giving oxygen a partial negative charge and each hydrogen a partial positive charge.
- Hydrogen bonds form between the partial positive hydrogen of one water molecule and the partial negative oxygen of a neighboring molecule.
- Hydrogen bonding produces cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension between water molecules.
- Water's high specific heat capacity helps organisms maintain a stable, homeostatic body temperature.
- Water's high heat of vaporization allows [evaporative cooling](https://fiveable.me/ap-bio/key-terms/evaporative-cooling), which also helps maintain body temperature.
- Hydrophilic substances attract water; [hydrophobic](https://fiveable.me/ap-bio/key-terms/hydrophobic) substances do not, because polarity determines what mixes with water.
| Term | Definition |
| ---------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| adhesion | The attractive force between water molecules and other polar substances, allowing water to stick to different surfaces. |
| cohesion | The attractive force between water molecules that causes them to stick together, resulting from hydrogen bonding. |
| evaporative cooling | The process by which the evaporation of water removes heat from an organism or environment. |
| heat of vaporization | The energy required to convert a liquid to a gas, enabling water to remove heat from organisms through evaporative cooling. |
| homeostasis | The maintenance of stable internal environmental conditions in an organism despite external and internal changes. |
| hydrogen bond | Weak attractive forces between a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom and another electronegative atom, occurring between or within biological molecules. |
| polar covalent bonds | Chemical bonds between atoms where electrons are unequally shared, resulting in partial positive and negative charges. |
| polarity | The unequal distribution of electrical charge in a molecule, resulting in one end being partially positive and the other partially negative. |
| specific heat capacity | The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree, allowing water to resist rapid temperature changes. |
| surface tension | The property of water that allows its surface to resist breaking, resulting from hydrogen bonding between adjacent water molecules. |
# Overview
covalents are 0-0.5 difference in electronegativities
polar covalents are 0.5 - 2
Ionics are 2+
math/calculus.md
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[[math]]
basically just the hard stuff
fundamental theorem of calculus
fundamental theorem of calculus![[Pasted image 20260816065000.png]]![[Pasted image 20260816065016.png]]
math/derivatives.md
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[[calculus]]
simply the instantaneous rate of change at a point
physics/Force and Translational Dynamics/Gravitational Force.md
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[[Force and Translational Dynamics]]
Magnitude of force of gravity = $|\vec F_g|=G\frac{m_1m_2}{r^2}$
G represents universal gravitational constant, which is equal to $6.67*10^{-11}\frac{Nm^2}{r^2}$