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biology/G11 Pre-AP Biology/Blood Types.md

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+[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
+
+Three alleles determine blood type. A and B are co-dominant while O is recessive.
+
+Blood types are characterized by protein markers on membranes of red blood cells. These protein markers are called antigens or glycoproteins. 
+
+$I^a$ represents A blood.
+$I^B$ represents B blood.
+$i$ represents O blood.
+
+| Blood phenotypes | Genotype(s)        | Protein markers | Antibodies produced by immune system |
+| ---------------- | ------------------ | --------------- | ------------------------------------ |
+| A                | $I^AI^A$<br>$I^Ai$ |                 | B antibodies.                        |
+| B                | $I^BI^B$<br>$I^Bi$ |                 | A antibodies.                        |
+| AB               | $I^AI^B$           |                 | Neither A or B antibodies.           |
+| O                | $ii$               |                 | Both A and B antibodies.             |
+Blood carries antibodies against the protein markers that are not present on the red blood cells. Antibodies are responsible for clumping or agglutination of blood cells when incompatible blood groups are mixed. Agglutination can clog vessels, causing severe damage. Agglutination is good for an immune response.
+
+Rhesus factor (Rh) determines if blood is plus or minus. It's another glycoprotein found on the red blood cell. 
+
+Two alleles determine your Rh blood type.
+Dominant D represents the allele for $RH^+$.
+Recessive d represents the allele for $RH^-$.
+
+| Blood phenotypes | Genotype(s) | Protein markers | Antibodies produced by immune system |
+| ---------------- | ----------- | --------------- | ------------------------------------ |
+| $RH^+$           | DD,Dd       |                 | No Rh antibodies.                    |
+| $RH^-$           | dd          |                 | Rh antibodies.                       |
+Rh antibodies are only produced when you are exposed to Rh antigens.
+Rh negative mothers can produce Rh+ antibodies if baby is Rh+.
+
+Blood is tested using antiserums (antibodies in a bottle). The blood is checked for agglutination.

biology/G11 Pre-AP Biology/Chi Squared.md

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+[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
+Punnet squares determines if there is a significant relationship between observed data and expected data.
+
+Example begin:
+let yellow be rep recessive allel y
+let green rep allele for Y
+
+p1: Yy x Yy
+
+gametes: Y, y x Y, y
+
+Example end.
+
+Chi square tutorial.
+Start off with two hypothesis.
+
+Null hypothesis ($H_0$):
+"There is not significant difference between observed and expected values of 75 yellow, 25 green peas. The differences are due to random chance alone."
+
+Alternative hypothesis ($H_A$):
+"There is a significant difference between the observed and expected values of 85, 25 green peas"
+
+Find the degrees of freedom and critical value.
+Degree of freedom: Number of categories/classes subtract 1.
+In the example, the 2 categories would have a degree of freedom of 1.
+
+Find the critical value. Find p=0.05 and degree of freedom.
+If the Chi Square is less than the critical value, accept the null hypothesis.
+Else accept alternative hypothesis.
+
+Chi square formula:$$\Sigma\frac{(o-e)^2}{e}$$
+![[Pasted image 20261026103929.png]]For the example, the formula results in 1.92, which is less than 3.84, thus it's failed to reject null hypothesis.
+
+An example conclusion for the example is "Fail to reject null hypothesis. The $x^2$ is smaller than the critical value of 3.841. There is not significant difference between the observed and expected values of yellow to green peas."
+
+Example begin:
+Let C represent purple.
+Let c represent corn.
+Let W represent wrinkled.
+Let w represent smooth.
+
+P1: CcWw x ccww
+Gametes:
+C, c, W, w x c,c,w,w
+
+|     | CW   | Cw   | cW   | cw   |
+| --- | ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- |
+| cw  | CcWw | Ccww | ccWw | ccww |
+Genotypes:
+25% Ccww
+25% ccWw
+25% ccww
+25% CcWw
+Phenotypes:
+25% purple smooth corn.
+25% yellow wrinkled corn.
+25% yellow smooth corn.
+25% purple wrinkled corn.
+
+Hypothesis:
+null
+not null
+
+Degree of freedom is 3.
+Critical value is 7.82.
+
+Expected 200 purple smooth, 200 yellow wrinkled, 200 yellow smooth 200 purple wrinkled.
+Results are 200 purple wrinkled 200 purple smooth 190 yellow wrinkled 189 yellow smooth.
+
+| Phenotype       | Observed | Expected | $\frac{(o-e)^2}{e}$ |
+| --------------- | -------- | -------- | ------------------- |
+| purple wrinkled | 200      | 195      | 0.1282              |
+| purple smooth   | 200      | 195      | 0.1282              |
+| yellow wrinkled | 190      | 195      | 0.1282              |
+| yellow smooth   | 189      | 195      | 0.1846              |
+|                 | 779      |          | 0.5692              |
+
+0.5692 is less than the critical value of 7.82, thus null hypothesis.12
+

biology/G11 Pre-AP Biology/Pedigree Analysis.md

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+[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
+
+Pedigree is a diagram of family relationships.
+
+![[Pasted image 20261102104200.png]]
+
+Example begin:
+The trait we are examining is: 
+The mode of inheritance of this trait is: 
+Therefore, circles and squares that are filled in will represent: 
+Let T rep brown 
+Let t rep blue"
+![[Pasted image 20261102105022.png]]
+Example end.
+
+Example pedigree analysis begin:
+Pedigree analysis:
+- Let statements:
+	- If the trait is autosomal dominant then:
+	- A = Kidney disease
+	- a = No kidney disease
+	- Affected genotypes: AA, Aa.
+	- Unaffected genotypes: aa.
+- Let statements:
+	- If the trait is autosomal recessive then:
+	- A = No cystic fibrosis.
+	- a = Cystic fibrosis.
+	- Affected genotypes: aa.
+	- Unaffected genotypes: Aa, AA.
+Example end.