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||||
"physics/Force and Translational Dynamics",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260813174454.png",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260813175101.png",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life",
|
||||
"Assets",
|
||||
"literacy",
|
||||
"Recording 20260716183349.m4a",
|
||||
"Recording 20260716183320.m4a",
|
||||
"biology",
|
||||
"medical"
|
||||
"literacy/literacy.md",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life/Proteins.md",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life/structure of water and hydrogen bonding.md",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life/Nucleic Acids.md",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life/Macromolecules.md",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life/Lipids.md",
|
||||
"physics/Modern Physics/Bohr Model of Atomic Structure.md",
|
||||
"root.md",
|
||||
"biology/Cell Structure and Function/Membrane Transport.md",
|
||||
"biology/G11 Pre-AP Biology/1 Viruses.md",
|
||||
"chemistry/Organic Chemistry/Classifying Organic Compounds.md",
|
||||
"biology/Cell Structure and Function/Origins of Cell Compartmentalization.md",
|
||||
"biology/biology.md",
|
||||
"Hydrocarbons.md",
|
||||
"physics/quantum mechanics.md",
|
||||
"Tasks.md",
|
||||
"biology/Chemistry of Life/Carbohydrates.md",
|
||||
"chemistry/Organic Chemistry",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260915104440.png",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted Image 20260911112001_579.png",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260915104456.png",
|
||||
"physics/Modern Physics",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260911203414.png",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260911112321.png",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260911111837.png",
|
||||
"Excalidraw",
|
||||
"biology/G11 Pre-AP Biology",
|
||||
"physics/Electric Circuits",
|
||||
"physics/Electric Force, Field, and Potential",
|
||||
"physics/Thermodynamics",
|
||||
"physics/Oscillations",
|
||||
"physics/Fluids",
|
||||
"physics/Torque and Rotational Dynamics",
|
||||
"Assets/Pasted image 20260819112153.png"
|
||||
]
|
||||
}
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
excalidraw-plugin: parsed
|
||||
tags: [excalidraw]
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
==⚠ Switch to EXCALIDRAW VIEW in the MORE OPTIONS menu of this document. ⚠== You can decompress Drawing data with the command palette: 'Decompress current Excalidraw file'. For more info check in plugin settings under 'Saving'
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Drawing
|
||||
```compressed-json
|
||||
N4IgLgngDgpiBcIYA8DGBDANgSwCYCd0B3EAGhADcZ8BnbAewDsEAmcm+gV31TkQAswYKDXgB6MQHNsYfpwBGAOlT0AtmIBeNCtlQbs6RmPry6uA4wC0KDDgLFLUTJ2lH8MTDHQ0YNMWHRJMRZFFgBWRQBmMiRPVRhGMBoEAG0AXXJ0KCgAZQCwPlBJfDwc7A0+Rk5MTHIdGCIAIXRUAGtirkZcAGF6THp8BBAAYgAzcYmQAF8poA===
|
||||
```
|
||||
%%
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
[[Organic Chemistry]]
|
||||
|
||||
Simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
|
||||
|
||||
Non-polar, as they contain only hydrogen and carbon.
|
||||
|
||||
They are classified as aromatic or aliphatic. Aliphatic hydrocarbons have carbon atoms bonded in chains or rings, including straight chains and cyclic alkenes, alkanes and alkynes. Aromatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons based on aromatic benzene group.
|
||||
|
||||
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that only contain single bonds, alkenes contain double bonds and alkynes contain triple bonds.
|
||||
|
||||
Alkanes in the shape of a ring are called cycloalkanes. Alkanes not in the shape of rings have formula $C_nH_{2n+2}$. Cycloalkanes are in the shape of rings and have the formula $C_nH_{2n}$. Straight chain alkenes with one double bond have the same formula as cycloalkanes. Straight chain alkynes with one triple bond have the formula $C_nH_{2n-2}$.
|
||||
|
||||
Functional groups are groups of reactive bonded atoms that appear in all members of a family. Reactive double bonds are the functional group of alkenes.
|
||||
|
||||
# Naming Organic Compounds
|
||||
Naming organic compounds usually follows the pattern of prefix + root + suffix.
|
||||
|
||||
Root names:
|
||||
|
||||
| Number of Carbon atoms | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|
||||
| ---------------------- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | --- | --- |
|
||||
| Root | meth | eth | prop | but | pent | hex | hept | oct | non | dec |
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
|
||||
stuff needed to be done
|
||||
- [ ] print a robot arm
|
||||
- [ ] write a scientific paper
|
||||
- [ ] make a human brain model using c++
|
||||
- [ ] vulkan maybe? dont care too much for it
|
||||
- [ ] unreal engine maybe?
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
|
||||
[[Biology]]
|
||||
* In the exam, always connect an organelle to a specific function
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
Cell compartmentalization is how eukaryotic cells use membranes to separate specific metabolic processes and enzymatic reactions.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Internal membranes help cells separate competing interactions and increase surface area where reactions occur
|
||||
* Each organelle maintains its own conditions
|
||||
* Folded membrane like mitochondrial cristae and chloroplast thylakoids pack more reaction surface into a small space
|
||||
* Prokaryotes lack membrane bound organelles, so translation and transcription can occur in the same space
|
||||
# Eukaryotic Organization: Separate Compartments for Separate Jobs
|
||||
Eukaryotic cells have membranes, prokaryotic cells don't. Eukaryotic cells have organelles which are compartmentalized because they're surrounded by a membrane.
|
||||
|
||||
# Nucleus
|
||||
* Houses DNA and cell control
|
||||
* Surrounded by a double membrane with nuclear pores for transport
|
||||
* Creates a protected environment for DNA storage and RNA production
|
||||
* Separates transcription (making DNA from RNA) from translation (making proteins from RNA)
|
||||
# Endoplasmic Reticulum
|
||||
* Rough ER creates specialized area for protein folding and quality control. Connects directly to nuclear membrane for efficient RNA transport.
|
||||
* Smooth ER no ribosomes, specializes in lipid production and detoxification. Separate environment for lipid synthesis enzymes, stores calcium ions in a controlled safe space.
|
||||
# Golgi Apparatus
|
||||
* Receives proteins from ER and modifies them
|
||||
* Sorts and packages proteins into vesicles for delivery
|
||||
* Works a sequential processing line with enzymes in different cisternae
|
||||
* Different cisternae have different conditions for different processing steps
|
||||
# Lysosomes
|
||||
* Contains hydrolytic enzymes that work best in acidic environments
|
||||
* Breaks down cellular waste, old organelles, and foreign material
|
||||
* Keeps destructive enzymes safely contained
|
||||
# Mitochondria
|
||||
* Generates ATP from aerobic respiration
|
||||
* Double membrane, outer is smooth and protective, inner is folded into a cristae to increase SA
|
||||
* Contains own DNA and ribosomes (evidence they evolved from once free living prokaryotes)
|
||||
# Peroxisomes
|
||||
* Breaks down fatty acids and toxic molecules
|
||||
* Enzymes that produce and break down hydrogen peroxide
|
||||
* Safe contained place for these dangerous reactions
|
||||
# Vacuoles
|
||||
* Stores nutrients waste products and water
|
||||
* Helps maintain turgor pressure in plant cells
|
||||
* Isolated environment for materials that might hamper other processes
|
||||
|
||||
# Why Compartmentalization Improves Efficiency
|
||||
* Creates specialized environments (e.g. enzymes like acidic environments, others don't)
|
||||
* Increases surface area for reactions
|
||||
* Separates competing reactions, some processes would interfere with others
|
||||
* Allows proteins to go where they're needed as the membranes hold proteins
|
||||
* Prokaryotic cells can do translation and transcription in the same region because they lack compartmentalization, limiting how complex they can become.
|
||||
|
||||
| Term | Definition |
|
||||
| ------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
|
||||
| compartmentalization | The division of the eukaryotic cell into distinct membrane-bound regions that separate different metabolic processes and enzymatic reactions. |
|
||||
| enzymatic reaction | Chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes that occur within specific cellular compartments to facilitate metabolic processes. |
|
||||
| eukaryotic cell | Cells that contain a membrane-bound nucleus and internal membrane-bound organelles, found in animals, plants, fungi, and protists. |
|
||||
| internal membrane | Membranes within eukaryotic cells that divide the cell into compartments with specialized functions. |
|
||||
| intracellular metabolic process | Chemical reactions and pathways that occur within the cell to build up or break down molecules for energy and biosynthesis. |
|
||||
| membrane-bound organelle | Specialized structures within eukaryotic cells enclosed by a membrane that perform specific cellular functions. |
|
||||
| membrane-bound structure | Organelles and compartments in eukaryotic cells that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer membrane, separating their contents from the cytoplasm. |
|
||||
| organelle | Membrane-bound or non-membrane-bound structures within eukaryotic cells that perform specific cellular functions. |
|
||||
| surface area | The total area of a membrane available for chemical reactions and cellular processes to occur. |
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
Surface area-to-volume ratio (SA:V) controls how well a cell exchanges materials and energy with its environment. Smaller cells have higher SA:V, so more efficient. As things get bigger, cells require more adaptations to remain fast.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Higher SA:V means more efficient exchange.
|
||||
* Volume grows faster than SA as a cell gets bigger, so SA:V decreases.
|
||||
* Folds and projections like microvilli and root hairs increase SA without adding much V.
|
||||
* Lower SA:V in larger bodies slows heat exchange and is linked to lower metabolic rate.
|
||||
|
||||
Plasma membrane SA must be large enough to exchange stuff fast enough for cell needs.
|
||||
SA:V doesn't only affect size, but also shape. Sphere isn't all that efficient for SA:V.
|
||||
|
||||
- _Sphere:_ SA = 4πr², V = (4/3)πr³
|
||||
- _Cube:_ SA = 6s², V = s³
|
||||
- _Cylinder:_ SA = 2πrh + 2πr², V = πr²h
|
||||
- _Rectangular Solid:_ SA = 2(lw + lh + wh), V = lwh
|
||||
|
||||
Because SA:V impacts thermal energy transfer, larger organisms lose heat slower than smaller organisms proportionally.
|
||||
|
||||
| Term | Definition |
|
||||
| ---------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
|
||||
| heat exchange | The transfer of thermal energy between an organism's body and the surrounding environment; rate decreases as organism size increases. |
|
||||
| membrane folds | Infoldings of the cell membrane that increase surface area to facilitate more efficient material exchange in complex cells. |
|
||||
| metabolic rate | The rate at which an organism uses energy; typically higher per unit body mass in smaller organisms than in larger organisms. |
|
||||
| nutrient exchange | The process by which cells obtain necessary nutrients from the environment. |
|
||||
| plasma membrane | The selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cell, composed of phospholipids, proteins, and other molecules that regulate what enters and exits the cell. |
|
||||
| surface area-to-volume ratio | The relationship between the total surface area and the total volume of a cell or organism; affects the efficiency of material exchange with the environment. |
|
||||
| thermal energy exchange | The transfer of heat energy between an organism and its environment. |
|
||||
| waste products | Byproducts of cellular metabolism that must be eliminated from cells or organisms. |
|
||||
@@ -1 +1,65 @@
|
||||
[[biology]]
|
||||
[[Biology]]
|
||||
|
||||
Cell structure and function boils down to the idea that each subcellular component has a structure that supports a singular job.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Ribosomes are non membrane structures with rRNA and protein, they build proteins by reading mRNA
|
||||
* Endomembrane system (ER, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuole, transport vesicles, nuclear membrane, plasma membrane) work together to modify package and transport proteins lipids and polysaccharides.
|
||||
* Rough ER handles protein synthesis and supports compartmentalization.
|
||||
* Smooth ER handles lipid synthesis and detoxification.
|
||||
* Mitochondria have a double membrane, folded inner membrane increases surface area so ATP is made more efficiently during aerobic respiration.
|
||||
* Lysosomes use hydrolytic enzymes to digest material and take part of apoptosis.
|
||||
* Vacuoles store material and in plants regulate turgor pressure
|
||||
* Chloroplasts have a double membrane and do photosynthesis in plants and photosynthetic algae.
|
||||
|
||||
# Plasma Membrane
|
||||
Boundary that separates the inside of the cell from the outside. Phospholipid bilayer, meaning 2 layers of phospholipid. Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail, so the heads face the outsides and the tails face the insides.
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260817102835.png]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Nucleus
|
||||
Stores genetic information (DNA) and directs cell activity. Nucleolus is where rRNA is produced and ribosomal subunits are produced.
|
||||
|
||||
Nuclear envelope is a double membrane. Surrounds nucleus and regulates movement of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm. Continuous with ER.
|
||||
|
||||
# Ribosomes
|
||||
Ribosomes are non membrane structures with rRNA and protein, they build proteins by reading mRNA. Found in all forms of life. Reflects common ancestry of all known life.
|
||||
|
||||
Free ribosomes float in the cytosol and produces proteins for the cell. Bound ribosomes attach to the rough ER and produce proteins for export or membranes.
|
||||
|
||||
# Endoplasmic Reticulum
|
||||
Rough ER's membrane is embedded with ribosomes, making it look rough. Helps carry out protein synthesis and compartmentalization. Proteins made here are packaged into transport vesicles to be sent to the Golgi complex.
|
||||
|
||||
Smooth ER handles lipid synthesis and detox.
|
||||
|
||||
# Endomembrane System
|
||||
Endomembrane system (ER, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuole, transport vesicles, nuclear membrane, plasma membrane) work together to modify package and transport proteins lipids and polysaccharides.
|
||||
* Nuclear envelope - continuous to ER, regulates transport in and out of nucleus
|
||||
* ER - synthesizes and modifies proteins and lipids
|
||||
* Golgi complex - packages, modifies and sorts molecules
|
||||
* Lysosomes - digests cellular material
|
||||
* Vacuoles - membrane bound sacs involved in storage
|
||||
* Transport vesicles - shuttle materials between components
|
||||
* Plasma membrane - final destination for many packages
|
||||
# Golgi Complex
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260817103921.png|394]]
|
||||
Folds and chemically modifies synthesized cellular packages like proteins. Vesicles enter at the cis face and exit from the trans face.
|
||||
|
||||
Example of chemical modification that occurs in the aforementioned is glycosylation, which adds sugars to proteins.
|
||||
|
||||
# Mitochondria
|
||||
Mitochondria have a double membrane, folded inner membrane increases surface area so ATP is made more efficiently during aerobic respiration.
|
||||
|
||||
Space inside inner membrane is mitochondrial matrix.
|
||||
# Lysosomes
|
||||
Membrane enclosed sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes used to digest material. Breaks down macromolecules, ingested material and worn down cellular components and recycle cellular material. Also play a part in apoptosis (planned cell death).
|
||||
# Vacuoles
|
||||
Store material and in plant cells handle turgor pressure (pressure from plasma against cell wall), which helps keeps cell wall rigid.
|
||||
|
||||
In animal cells there are more and are smaller.
|
||||
# Chloroplasts
|
||||
Double membrane, handle photosynthesis, only found in plant and photosynthetic algae cells.
|
||||
# Plant Cells vs Animal Cells
|
||||
* Ribosomes are in all cells.
|
||||
* Membrane bound organelles (nucleus, Golgi, mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles, chloroplasts) are features of eukaryotic cells.
|
||||
* Plant cells have chloroplasts, a central vacuole and a cell wall.
|
||||
* Animal cells have multiple smaller vacuoles.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
Type of passive diffusion that allows molecules that can't cross the hydrophobic core on their own using channel or transport proteins. Requires no energy.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Aquaporins are channel proteins that move large quantities of water across the membrane.
|
||||
* Facilitated diffusion uses transport and channel proteins to move molecules that can't cross the hydrophobic core on their own across the membrane. (More info in Membrane Transport)
|
||||
* Movement of ions across membrane can polarize it, creating an uneven charge distribution
|
||||
|
||||
**How molecular structure decides the route:**
|
||||
- Small and nonpolar: passes directly through the bilayer.
|
||||
- Large and polar (like glucose): needs a transport protein.
|
||||
- Charged ion (like Na⁺ or K⁺): needs a channel protein.
|
||||
|
||||
Water can cross the membrane on their own but it's slow, aquaporins transport large quantities.
|
||||
|
||||
| Transport Type | Energy Required? | Direction | Examples |
|
||||
| --------------------- | ---------------- | ----------- | --------------------------------------- |
|
||||
| Simple Diffusion | No | High to Low | O₂, CO₂ |
|
||||
| Facilitated Diffusion | No | High to Low | Glucose, ions, water through aquaporins |
|
||||
| Active Transport | Yes (ATP) | Low to High | Na⁺/K⁺ pump, calcium pumps |
|
||||
Key difference between simple and facilitated is the protein.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
Mechanisms of active transport.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient and requires energy, usually from ATP hydrolysis
|
||||
* Membrane proteins (pumps) required for active transport. Bind to molecules and moves them.
|
||||
* Na+/K+ pump (sodium potassium pump) moves 3 Na+ out and 2K+ in per ATP. Builds chemical and electric gradients.
|
||||
* Unequal ion movement contribute to membrane potential, helping cell's separation of charges.
|
||||
* Gradients store potential energy.
|
||||
* Passive transport requires no energy and moves substances down the gradient.
|
||||
|
||||
# Why ATP Is Required
|
||||
Requires metabolic energy. Uses hydrolysis to break ATP (adenosine triphosphate) ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), which releases energy that membrane proteins require. When ATP runs out, active transport stops.
|
||||
# The Role of Membrane Proteins
|
||||
Specialized membrane proteins:
|
||||
* Act as pumps
|
||||
* Undergo conformational changes using the ATP hydrolysis energy
|
||||
* Selective for which molecules they bind to
|
||||
* Moves substances across the membrane
|
||||
|
||||
# The Sodium-Potassium Pump: The Key Example
|
||||
Na+/K+-ATPase is a transmembrane protein that:
|
||||
* Runs continuously to maintain ion concentrations, since ions tend to equalize
|
||||
* Acts as an ATPase enzyme, catalyzing the ATP hydrolysis
|
||||
* Transports 3 Na+ out and 2K+ in per ATP
|
||||
* Uses released energy to pump ions against gradient
|
||||
Sodium potassium pumps use gradients that combine chemical and electric gradients.
|
||||
|
||||
Chemical Gradient:
|
||||
* Keeps Na concentration higher outside cell
|
||||
* Keeps K concentration higher inside cell
|
||||
* Stores potential energy
|
||||
|
||||
Electrical Gradient:
|
||||
* Because 3 positive ion leave for every 2 that enter, net loss of charge, making interior more negative
|
||||
* Contributes to resting membrane potential
|
||||
* Helps support nerve impulse transmission, muscle activity, nutrient uptake,
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Selective permeability comes from hydrophobic interior of nuclear membrane since phospholipids have fatty acid tails which are non polar
|
||||
* Small non polar molecules ($N_2,O_2,CO_2$) pass through freely
|
||||
* Small non charged polar molecules ($H_2O,NH_3$) can slip through in small amounts
|
||||
* Ions and and large polar molecules can't cross and require channels or transport proteins.
|
||||
* Cell walls in bacteria, archaea, fungi and plants provides structure, protects against osmotic lysis and acts as a permeability layer for some substances.
|
||||
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260817121113.png]]![[Pasted image 20260817121129.png|526]]
|
||||
|
||||
Cell wall material:
|
||||
* Bacteria - peptidoglycan
|
||||
* Archaea - various polymers (not peptidoglycan)
|
||||
* Fungi - chitin
|
||||
* Plants - cellulose
|
||||
Cell walls maintain shape and mechanical strength, permeability layer, protection from osmotic lysis (rupture via influx of water).
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,86 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
Membrane transport is how cells move materials across the nuclear membrane.
|
||||
|
||||
Passive transport includes simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
|
||||
|
||||
Active transport and bulk transport, including endocytosis and exocytosis use ATP to move substances against gradients or move large amounts of material.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Selective permeability comes from hydrophobic membrane interior.
|
||||
* Passive transport moves molecules down a concentration with no metabolic energy. Active transport uses ATP.
|
||||
* Concentration gradients store potential energy and let cells keep internal conditions different from outside.
|
||||
* Endocytosis and exocytosis move a lot of material and require energy.
|
||||
* Direction of movement (high to low/low to high) is the fastest clue to if it's using active or passive.
|
||||
* Cells use multiple transport types to maintain levels of solute and water.
|
||||
|
||||
Larger movements of water require proteins called aquaporins.
|
||||
|
||||
| Molecule Type | Examples | Can Cross Freely? | Needs Transport Protein? |
|
||||
| --------------------- | -------------------- | ------------------- | ------------------------ |
|
||||
| Small nonpolar | O₂, CO₂, N₂ | Yes | No |
|
||||
| Small polar uncharged | H₂O, NH₃ | Yes (small amounts) | Yes (large amounts) |
|
||||
| Large polar | Glucose, amino acids | No | Yes |
|
||||
| Ions | Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, Ca²⁺ | No | Yes |
|
||||
# Concentration Gradients
|
||||
Selective permeability allows cells to build concentration gradients, which exist when a substance has different concentrations of a substance on either side.
|
||||
|
||||
Allows for storing potential energy, drive passive transport, and maintain internal conditions separate from the outside.
|
||||
|
||||
# Passive Transport
|
||||
1. Simple Diffusion
|
||||
* Molecules move straight through the membrane
|
||||
* Works for small non-polars
|
||||
2. Facilitated Diffusion
|
||||
* Still moves down gradient (high to low)
|
||||
* Requires transport or channel proteins
|
||||
* Used for polar molecules or ions
|
||||
3. Osmosis
|
||||
* Diffusion of water across the selectively permeable membrane
|
||||
* Moves from low to high (refers to solute concentrations)
|
||||
* Aquaporins speed up water movement
|
||||
|
||||
# Active Transport
|
||||
Requires direct input of energy (usually ATP).
|
||||
|
||||
* Uses membrane proteins, often called pumps
|
||||
* Important for processes like nerve function and nutrient absorption
|
||||
* Uses ATP
|
||||
* Can create concentration gradients
|
||||
|
||||
|Transport Type|Energy Required?|Direction|Examples|
|
||||
|---|---|---|---|
|
||||
|Simple Diffusion|No|High to Low|O₂, CO₂|
|
||||
|Facilitated Diffusion|No|High to Low|Glucose, amino acids|
|
||||
|Active Transport|Yes (ATP)|Low to High|Na⁺/K⁺ pump, calcium pumps|
|
||||
1. Selective permeability creates control
|
||||
2. Active transport allows for creating concentration gradients
|
||||
3. Passive transport allows for equilibrium
|
||||
4. Maintaining water and solute levels is vital to an organism
|
||||
|
||||
# Transport of Large Molecules
|
||||
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260817123835.png]]
|
||||
|
||||
Exocytosis (moving stuff out):
|
||||
* Internal vesicles fuse to plasma membrane
|
||||
* Requires energy
|
||||
* Is then secreted outside
|
||||
* Used for secreting things like hormones
|
||||
|
||||
Endocytosis (bringing stuff in):
|
||||
* Plasma membrane folds inwards and create vesicle
|
||||
* Requires energy
|
||||
* Vesicle pinches off and enters
|
||||
Three main types of endocytosis:
|
||||
1. Phagocytosis
|
||||
* Cell engulfs large molecules or microorganisms
|
||||
* Creates food vacuoles
|
||||
* Common for white blood cells that take in bacteria
|
||||
2. Pinocytosis
|
||||
* Cell takes in liquid with dissolved substances
|
||||
* Non specific: brings in whatever is liquid
|
||||
3. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
|
||||
* Specific: only brings in molecules that bind to receptors
|
||||
* Receptors clustered in coated pits that form vesicles
|
||||
* Examples: cholesterol uptake, insulin uptake
|
||||
@@ -4,19 +4,19 @@
|
||||
Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound nucleus and other organelles, while prokaryotic lacks these and has DNA free in the cytoplasm.
|
||||
|
||||
Prokaryotic properties:
|
||||
* Nucleoid region - circular dna not wrapped in membranes
|
||||
* Nucleoid region - circular DNA not wrapped in membranes
|
||||
* Ribosomes - protein making structures that are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes
|
||||
* Plasmids - small rings of extra dna separate from the main chromosome
|
||||
* Plasmids - small rings of extra DNA separate from the main chromosome
|
||||
* Inclusion bodies - storage for nutrients
|
||||
* Thylakoid membrane - in photosynthetic bacteria, membranes that capture light
|
||||
|
||||
Eukaryotic properties:
|
||||
* Nucleus - hold and protect dna
|
||||
* Nucleus - hold and protect DNA
|
||||
* Mitochondria - site of aerobic cellular respiration
|
||||
* chloroplast - site of photosynthesis
|
||||
* Chloroplast - site of photosynthesis
|
||||
* Endoplasmic reticulum - protein and lipid synthesis, as well as transportation
|
||||
* golgi complex - folds modifies and ships cellular packages
|
||||
* lysosomes - contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest material
|
||||
* Golgi complex - folds modifies and ships cellular packages
|
||||
* Lysosomes - contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest material
|
||||
|
||||
Internal membranes allow a cell to run reactions that would otherwise be interfered with each other.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -34,9 +34,9 @@ Engulfed cells helped the big cell survive, so cells with these internal partner
|
||||
|
||||
## Evidence for Endosymbiosis
|
||||
Strongest evidence is that chloroplast and mitochondria look like the bacteria they came from.
|
||||
* mitochondria and chloroplast carry their own dna, and it's circular like the bacteria
|
||||
* mitochondria and chloroplast carry their own DNA, and it's circular like the bacteria
|
||||
* both have double membranes, one from the original prokaryotic cells and another for when the plasma engulfed it.
|
||||
* same size as bacteria and split seperately from rest of cell
|
||||
* same size as bacteria and split separately from rest of cell
|
||||
* ribosomes are more like bacteria ribosomes than the host cell ribosomes
|
||||
* some make their own proteins
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260816073410.png]]
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Phospholipids are amphipathic (both hydrophobic and hydrophilic): hydrophilic phosphate heads point towards water hydrophobic fatty acid tails point away.
|
||||
* Embedded proteins have hydrophilic regions facing the cytosol or extracellular fluid. Also have hydrophobic regions that contact the fatty acid tails in membrane interior.
|
||||
* Cholesterol (in vertebrate animals) acts as a fluidity buffer, preventing the membrane from getting too loose or stiff in head or cold.
|
||||
* Fluid mosaic model describes a membrane with phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, glyco(proteins/lipids) can move around the surface.
|
||||
* Fatty acid affects fluidity, unsaturated with kinks increases it, while saturated makes the phospholipids pack tightly together.
|
||||
* Glycoprotein and glycolipid sit on the outside and help with cell recognition.
|
||||
|
||||
Plasma membrane defines the edge of every cell, it's not a wall and is flexible.
|
||||
# Components of the Plasma Membrane
|
||||
|
||||
Phospholipids are main structural framework as a bilayer. Hydrophobic fatty acid tails point away from aqueous environment, hydrophilic phosphate heads point towards.
|
||||
|
||||
Steroids (cholesterol in vertebrates) restrain phospholipid movement at high temps and prevents them from packing tightly at low temps.
|
||||
|
||||
Gylco(proteins/lipids) are carbohydrates, attached to proteins and lipids, helps cells recognize each other.
|
||||
|
||||
# Fluid Mosaic Model
|
||||
Describes the plasma membrane as structural framework of phospholipids embedded with proteins, steroids(cholesterol) and glyco(steroids/lipids). Describes them as being able to move freely.
|
||||
|
||||
Fluid nature, phospholipids can move laterally like they're in a sea of lipids. Allows components to shift and form regions for different jobs.
|
||||
|
||||
Variety of molecules creates a mosaic appearance, thus the name.
|
||||
|
||||
# Factors Affecting Membrane Fluidity
|
||||
* Temp
|
||||
* Fatty acid composition (look below)
|
||||
* Cholesterol content (look above)
|
||||
# How Structure Connects to Function
|
||||
Hydrophobic interior blocks polar molecules while allowing small non-polar molecules pass more freely. Basis for selective permeability.
|
||||
|
||||
Embedded proteins allow for specific interactions. Receptor proteins bind to signaling molecules, transport proteins move them.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
||||
[[Cell Structure and Function]]
|
||||
|
||||
Tonicity compares solute concentrations in and out of a cell, telling you which direction the water will move. Cells and organisms use osmoregulation to keep water and solutes balanced.
|
||||
|
||||
Tonicity is essentially comparing solute concentration inside and outside a cell.
|
||||
|
||||
Osmoregulation is how cells handle water balance and solute concentration.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary:
|
||||
* Tonicity compares solute concentration inside and outside a cell.
|
||||
* Osmosis moves water from high water potential to low water potential
|
||||
* Water potential: $\psi=\psi_s+\psi_p$
|
||||
* Adding solute lowers water potential, pressure raises it.
|
||||
* Solute potential: $\psi=-iCRT$
|
||||
* As solute concentration rises, $\psi$ becomes more negative.
|
||||
|
||||
# Tonicity
|
||||
Tonicity compares solute concentration inside and outside a cell.
|
||||
* Hypertonic is when a cells solute concentration is higher than its environment, causing the water inside to leave by osmosis and making animal cells crenate and plant cells undergo plasmolysis.
|
||||
* Hypotonic is when a cells solute concentration is lower than the environment so the surrounding water flows in, making animal cells lyse and plant cells turgid.
|
||||
* Isotonic is when solute concentrations match, so the cell keeps its shape.
|
||||
|
||||
# Osmosis
|
||||
Passive movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from hypotonic (low solute concentrations) to hypertonic (higher) (equivalent to moving from high water potential to low). Water is polar, so it moves through aquaporins, which provide an hydrophilic path. Aquaporins are important in plant cells, red blood cells, etc.
|
||||
|
||||
# Water Potential
|
||||
$$\psi=\psi_s+\psi_p$$
|
||||
$\psi$ is total water potential, $\psi_s$ is solute potential, $\psi_p$ is pressure potential. Adding solute lowers solute potential, pressure potential is physics pressure on solution.
|
||||
|
||||
In an open container, pressure potential is zero, in a plant cell turgor pressure increases pressure potential.
|
||||
|
||||
# Solute Potential
|
||||
$$\psi=-iCRT$$
|
||||
$i$ is ionization constant (number of molecules a particle makes in a solution)
|
||||
$C$ is molar concentration
|
||||
$R$ is pressure constant ($R=0.0831 L*bars/mol*K$)
|
||||
$T$ is temperature in Kelvin
|
||||
|
||||
Solute potential is always zero or negative.
|
||||
Solute concentration has a negative relation with solute potential, drawing more water to the region.
|
||||
|
||||
# Osmoregulation and Homeostasis
|
||||
Organisms must regulate water potential and solute composition to maintain homeostasis.
|
||||
* Contractile vacuoles in freshwater protists: freshwater environments are hypotonic to protist's cytoplasm, so they constantly pump this water out.
|
||||
* Central vacuole in plant cell: Large central vacuole stores water and dissolved substances, making the plasma membrane push against cell wall and making the cell rigid and strong.
|
||||
# How Water and Solutes Cross Membranes
|
||||
Channel Proteins:
|
||||
Provides a hydrophilic passage through the membrane for certain ions and molecules. Aquaporins are a channel protein for water. Movement of these ions can charge the membrane.
|
||||
|
||||
Carrier Proteins:
|
||||
Change shape to shuttle molecules across the membrane. Transport rate is slower than channel proteins. They let large polar molecules move down concentration gradient.
|
||||
|
||||
Active Transport (Related Context):
|
||||
Transport above is passive because it moves along the gradient. Active transport requires ATP and moves against gradient.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
|
||||
[[Biology]]
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[chemistry of life]]
|
||||
[[Chemistry of Life]]
|
||||
|
||||
6 main elements in biology, chnops
|
||||
**C**arbon
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[biology]]
|
||||
[[Chemistry of Life]]
|
||||
macromolecules are essentially very large molecules
|
||||
|
||||
macromolecules consist of smaller subunits, called monomers, when you have a bunch of monomers together it's called a polymer
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,2 +1 @@
|
||||
[[biology]]
|
||||
chemistry and life somewhat go hand in hand
|
||||
[[Biology]]
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[chemistry of life]]
|
||||
[[Chemistry of Life]]
|
||||
|
||||
# SUMMARY
|
||||
## Key Takeaways
|
||||
|
||||
File diff suppressed because one or more lines are too long
File diff suppressed because one or more lines are too long
File diff suppressed because one or more lines are too long
File diff suppressed because one or more lines are too long
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
|
||||
Species is a group in organism that interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring. Gaps though, bacteria don't sexually reproduce, and there are separate species that are able to mate and create fertile children.
|
||||
|
||||
Three types of species.
|
||||
* Morphological Species:
|
||||
* Studies shape, size, physics, structural features.
|
||||
* Simple, quick.
|
||||
* Most populations have variation.
|
||||
* Biological Species:
|
||||
* Ability to reproduce in nature and produce fertile offspring.
|
||||
* Most commonly accepted definition, objective.
|
||||
* Can't test on asexually reproducing, extinct, and/or physically separated organisms.
|
||||
* Phylogenetic:
|
||||
* Studies evolutionary history and relationships among organisms.
|
||||
* Can be applied to extinct species.
|
||||
* Not all evolutionary histories are known.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
|
||||
[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
|
||||
Characteristics:
|
||||
* Mainly unicellular
|
||||
* Under Eukarya domain.
|
||||
* Eukaryotic cells.
|
||||
* Reproduces sexually and/or asexually.
|
||||
* Diverse, not closely related.
|
||||
|
||||
Classification:
|
||||
* Animal-like (protozoans):
|
||||
* Heterotrophs.
|
||||
* Can move.
|
||||
* Plant-like:
|
||||
* Autotrophs, can photosynthesize.
|
||||
* Photoautotrophs.
|
||||
* Some are capable of consuming other organisms when light is unavailable.
|
||||
* Can be unicellular or multicellular.
|
||||
* Fungus-like:
|
||||
* Absorbs nutrients from other organisms.
|
||||
* Heterotroph/decomposers, outer digestion.
|
||||
* Cell wall is not chitin.
|
||||
* Examples are slime moulds and water moulds.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
| Phylum | Characteristics | Example |
|
||||
| ------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ----------------------------------- |
|
||||
| Cercozoan | Pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic extension for movement/feeding. | *Amoeba proteus* |
|
||||
| Cilliophora | Cilia, short hair like extensions for sweeping food or movement. | *Paramecium caudatum* |
|
||||
| Zoomastigma | Flagella, long tail like whip. | *Trichonympha* |
|
||||
| Sporozoa | Vector, uses living organism to transmit infection from one organism to another. Parasitic to animals. | *Plasmodium vivax* (causes malaria) |
|
||||
| Myxomycpta | Many nuculei, engulfs like amoeba. | Plasmodia |
|
||||
| Acrasiomycota | Individual amoeboid cells, one nuculeus. | Cellular slime mold |
|
||||
| Oomycota | Filamentous, resemble fungi, release enzymes to absorb nutrients. | *Water mold* |
|
||||
Paramecium:
|
||||
* Cilia.
|
||||
* Asexual (binary fission/sexual.
|
||||
* Gullet.
|
||||
* Outer protein covering.
|
||||
* Lives in water.
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260924105000.png|371]]
|
||||
Amoeba:
|
||||
* Pseudopods.
|
||||
* Extension of cytoskeleton.
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260924105030.png]]
|
||||
Euglenoids/Euglena:
|
||||
* Plant-like protista.
|
||||
* Flagella.
|
||||
* Unicellular.
|
||||
* Capable of ingesting nutrients.
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260924105525.png]]
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,2 +1,2 @@
|
||||
[[root]]
|
||||
[[ROOT]]
|
||||
study of life and living organisms
|
||||
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[biology]]
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
|
||||
[[Organic Chemistry]]
|
||||
|
||||
Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon. It was originally classified as compounds originating from living beings, but a scientist made an organic compound inorganically using ammonium cyanate.
|
||||
|
||||
Carbon usually forms 4 covalent bonds. If a compound contains only single bonds, then it's saturated, unsaturated otherwise.
|
||||
|
||||
Carbons unique bonding allows it to form many shapes, including rings and chains.
|
||||
@@ -1,11 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[chemistry]]
|
||||
|
||||
**"calculation of relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions"**
|
||||
|
||||
avogardos numbers = $6.02*10^{23}$
|
||||
n=mole=conversion factor=$6.02*10^{23}$ things (atoms/ions/molecules/formulaunits/etc)
|
||||
1 pair = 2 things
|
||||
1 dozen = 12 things
|
||||
|
||||
one atomic unit ~= 1 gram / avogardos number
|
||||
avogardos number x atomic unit ~= 1 gram
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
|
||||
|
||||
covalents are sharing
|
||||
ionics are giving
|
||||
@@ -1,27 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[chemistry]]
|
||||
|
||||
**main types**
|
||||
synthesis
|
||||
decomposition
|
||||
single displacement
|
||||
double displacement
|
||||
combustion
|
||||
|
||||
# synthesis
|
||||
just two substances coming together to form a compound,
|
||||
reactant + reactant ->
|
||||
|
||||
# single displacement
|
||||
requires the replacee to havea a lower activity series than the replacer
|
||||
|
||||
# Double Displacement
|
||||
double displacement is a reaction of 2 compounds
|
||||
pos and negs switch places to form new stuff
|
||||
only works with ionics
|
||||
|
||||
only occurs if one of 3 propduces is formed
|
||||
- percipitate (s)
|
||||
- gas (g)
|
||||
- covalent compound such as water (l)
|
||||
# Combustion
|
||||
is hydrocarbon react with oxygen to create co2 and h2o
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
|
||||
how much attraction an element has to electrons
|
||||
when bonded things different in electronegativity is too high, one basically steals the electron from the other forming an ionic bond, and if it's in the middle then it's polar, and if the difference isnt large than the 2 play nice and share it with a covalent
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,5 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Stoichiometry]]
|
||||
|
||||
empirical formulas are the simplest whole number ratio of atom in a substance
|
||||
|
||||
eg acetic acid and glucose share an empherical of ch_2o
|
||||
@@ -1,5 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Stoichiometry]]
|
||||
|
||||
law of definite proportions states: the elements in a chemical compound are always present in the same proportion by mass
|
||||
|
||||
$percentcomposition=\frac{massofelement}{totalmassofcompound}*100%$
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
|
||||
|
||||
naming chemical compounds
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[chemistry]]
|
||||
|
||||
periods are rows
|
||||
groups are columns
|
||||
@@ -1,6 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
|
||||
[[electronegativity]]
|
||||
|
||||
when 2 bonding atoms have an $\Delta$ EN greater than 0.5 and less than 1.7, it's a polar covalent bond
|
||||
|
||||
polar covalents have an imbalance of electrons, causing partial positive charges and partial negative charges, the atom with the stronger EN pulls the electron more but not enough to completely take it, making the electron closer and giving it a partial negative charge
|
||||
@@ -1,81 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[chemistry]]
|
||||
|
||||
**"a charged chemical species composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex, that can be considered to be acting as a single unit"
|
||||
|
||||
H stable at a duet 2d
|
||||
Be stable at a tetrad 4e
|
||||
B stable at a sextet 6e
|
||||
|
||||
| **Name** | **Formula** |
|
||||
| ---------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
|
||||
| **Polyatomic ions (carrying negative charge)** | |
|
||||
| Hydroxide | OH [Matter and Chemical Bonding]]<br><br>add or remove valence e according to charge<br><br>H stable at a duet 2d<br>Be stable at a tetrad 4e<br>B stable at a sextet 6e<br>all other elements in pe 1 and 2 require octets 8e (common ball)<br>per 3 and below can go above an octet (common ball)<br><br><br><br>– |
|
||||
| Acetate | CH3COO – |
|
||||
| Cyanide | CN – |
|
||||
| Chlorate | ClO3 – |
|
||||
| Chlorite | ClO2 – |
|
||||
| Nitrate | NO3 – |
|
||||
| Nitrite | NO2 – |
|
||||
| Hypochlorite | OCl – |
|
||||
| Hypobromite | OBr – |
|
||||
| Iodate | IO3 – |
|
||||
| Bisulphite | HSO3 – |
|
||||
| Bisulphate | HSO4 – |
|
||||
| Permanganate | MnO4 – |
|
||||
| Thiocyanate | SCN – |
|
||||
| Hydrogen carbonate | HCO 3– |
|
||||
| Carbonate | CO3 2- |
|
||||
| Sulphate | SO4 2- |
|
||||
| Sulphite | SO3 2- |
|
||||
| Oxalate | C2O4 2- |
|
||||
| Silicate | SiO3 2- |
|
||||
| Manganate | MnO4 2- |
|
||||
| Thiosulphate | S2O3 2- |
|
||||
| Chromate | CrO4 2- |
|
||||
| Dichromate | Cr2O7 2- |
|
||||
| Phosphate | PO4 3- |
|
||||
| Phosphite | PO3 3- |
|
||||
| Aluminate | AlO3 3- |
|
||||
| Arsenite | AsO3 3- |
|
||||
| Arsenate | AsO4 3- |
|
||||
| Borate | BO3 3- |
|
||||
| Pyrophosphate | P2O7 4- |
|
||||
| **Polyatomic ions (carrying positive charge)** | |
|
||||
| Ammonium | NH 4+ |
|
||||
|
||||
## List of monatomic ions
|
||||
|
||||
- The ions made of a single atom are called **simple ions or monatomic ions**.
|
||||
|
||||
| **Name** | **Formula** |
|
||||
| --------------------------------------------- | ----------- |
|
||||
| **Monatomic ions (carrying positive charge)** | |
|
||||
| Hydrogen | H+ |
|
||||
| Potassium | K+ |
|
||||
| Sodium | Na+ |
|
||||
| Silver | Ag+ |
|
||||
| Cuprous | Cu+ |
|
||||
| Aurous | Au+ |
|
||||
| Barium | Ba2+ |
|
||||
| Calcium | Ca2+ |
|
||||
| Magnesium | Mg2+ |
|
||||
| Cupric | Cu2+ |
|
||||
| Ferrous | Fe2+ |
|
||||
| Stannous | Sn2+ |
|
||||
| Mercuric | Hg2+ |
|
||||
| Zinc | Zn2+ |
|
||||
| Plumbous | Pb2+ |
|
||||
| Aluminum | Al3+ |
|
||||
| Ferric | Fe3+ |
|
||||
| Auric | Au3+ |
|
||||
| Arseneous | As3+ |
|
||||
| Plumbic | Pb4+ |
|
||||
| Stannic | Sn4+ |
|
||||
| **Monatomic ions (carrying negative charge)** | |
|
||||
| Chloride | Cl– |
|
||||
| Bromide | Br – |
|
||||
| Iodide | I– |
|
||||
| Oxide | O2- |
|
||||
| Sulphide | S2- |
|
||||
| Nitride | N3- |
|
||||
| Phosphide | P3- |
|
||||
@@ -1,6 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[chemical reactions]]
|
||||
|
||||
shrimple little table to check how stuff reacts with other stuff,
|
||||
- sol for soluble which means aqueous
|
||||
- ppt for precipitate
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,2 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[chemical reactions]]
|
||||
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
|
||||
@@ -1,6 +0,0 @@
|
||||
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
|
||||
each lone pair is E
|
||||
A is central atom
|
||||
X for each binded stuff
|
||||
|
||||
eg $H_2O$ is $AX_2E_2$
|
||||
+11
-1
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[literacy]]
|
||||
[[Literacy]]
|
||||
really buzzy buzzwords
|
||||
|
||||
praxis - implementation of a theory
|
||||
@@ -9,6 +9,9 @@ vicissitude - change/ quality of changing
|
||||
banal - so common ball that it's annoying
|
||||
atrophy - partial/completely wasting away of a part of body
|
||||
impiety - lack of respect for something considered sacred
|
||||
unequivocally - in a way that leaves no doubt
|
||||
magnanimous - great of soul
|
||||
luculent - clear/easily understood/light/shining
|
||||
|
||||
mildly buzzy buzzwords
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -19,3 +22,10 @@ hale - to compel to go / (archaic) to pull draw drag or hoist
|
||||
incongruence - out of place/absurd
|
||||
olfactory - part of sensory system used for smells
|
||||
nebulous - misty/foggy/mysterious
|
||||
umbra - dark area
|
||||
exergy - useful energy
|
||||
incontrovertibly - undeniably
|
||||
|
||||
Archaic Buzzwords:
|
||||
Forsooth - indeed/in truth
|
||||
Prithee - express a wish
|
||||
+16
-9
@@ -1,10 +1,17 @@
|
||||
[[literacy]]
|
||||
things you use in an argument with no bearing to logic or the argument
|
||||
[[Literacy]]
|
||||
|
||||
ad hominem - insulting the other guy
|
||||
ad lapidem - alex special, saying no without an argument
|
||||
fallacy fallacy - calling out fallacies without actually providing a counterargument
|
||||
appeal to hypocrisy/tu quoque - calling out another persons hypocrisy like eg you hate this game but you dont make any
|
||||
possibiliter ergo probabiliter/appeal to probability - this is likely so it must be true
|
||||
false dilemma- presenting something as either this or that when there could be more options
|
||||
straw man - misrepresents opponents argument to make it easier to attack, eg "gmos are bad? so youre saying you like farmers losing money because of bugs?"
|
||||
| NAME | DESCRIPTION |
|
||||
| -------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
|
||||
| Ad Hominem | Insulting opposition without argument. |
|
||||
| Ad Lapidem (Appeal to the stone) | Saying no without an argument. |
|
||||
| Fallacy Fallacy | Calling out fallacies without argument. |
|
||||
| Tu Quoque (Appeal to Hypocrisy) | Calling out hypocrisy, example being "You say this game is bad, but you don't make any." Such an argument makes no sense. |
|
||||
| Possibiliter Ergo Probabiliter | Claiming that something is likely so it must be true. |
|
||||
| False Dilemma | Claiming something is either this or that, despite it being a gradient or there being more possiblilities. |
|
||||
| Straw man | Misrepresenting argument to make it easier to counter, example being "You dislike pedophiles? Are you saying disciplining children is bad?" |
|
||||
| Cherry Picking | Picks out specific parts of evidence that supports their claim despite there being tons of other evidence that go against it. |
|
||||
| Proof by Assertion | Reiterating argument without new evidence. |
|
||||
| Non Sequitur | A statement that does not follow the logical flow of the previous. |
|
||||
| Bandwagon | Belief that claim is right because tons of people do it. |
|
||||
| Slippery Slope | Claiming one minor step will lead to major consequences. |
|
||||
| | |
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1 +1 @@
|
||||
[[root]]
|
||||
[[ROOT]]
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
basically just the comedically easy stuff
|
||||
|
||||
like what do i even write here it's all too easy
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
basically just the hard stuff
|
||||
|
||||
fundamental theorem of calculus![[Pasted image 20260816065000.png]]![[Pasted image 20260816065016.png]]
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
|
||||
# different types of games
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
[[vectors]]
|
||||
[[matrices]]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1 +1 @@
|
||||
[[root]]
|
||||
[[ROOT]]
|
||||
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
|
||||
basically arrays of arrays
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1 +1 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
the stupidly easy stuff
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
|
||||
basically just ^2 shit
|
||||
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1,2 +1,2 @@
|
||||
[[math]]
|
||||
[[Math]]
|
||||
basically just the easy stuff
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
|
||||
[[medical]]
|
||||
[[Medical]]
|
||||
### Therapeutic class
|
||||
Analgesics - pain relievers (opiods,nsaids)
|
||||
Antibiotics/Antimicrobial - treat bacterial and fungal infections
|
||||
|
||||
+1
-1
@@ -1 +1 @@
|
||||
[[root]]
|
||||
[[ROOT]]
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Measured in capacitance ($C=\frac{Q}{\Delta V}$), value fixed by physical build $C=\kappa \epsilon_0\frac{A}{d}$
|
||||
* Field between plates is uniform except near edges. $E_C=\frac{Q}{\kappa \epsilon_0 A}$ (equal to $\frac{\Delta V}{d}$)
|
||||
* Charged particle between plates feels constant force. Projectile with constant accel.
|
||||
* Stored energy written as: $U_C=\frac{1}{2}Q\Delta V=\frac{1}{2}C(\Delta V)^2=\frac{Q^2}{2C}$.
|
||||
* Adding dielectric raises capacitance by factor of $\kappa$, sets up induced field inside dielectric that opposes plate field.
|
||||
* On AP exam, only parallel plate capacitors required, edge effects ignored unless stated otherwise.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Change in electric potential energy for charge moving between 2 potentials $\Delta U_E=q\Delta V$ (J)
|
||||
* q can be positive or negative. $\Delta V=V_{final}-V_{initial}$.
|
||||
* Energy is conserved: $\Delta K=-\Delta U_E$
|
||||
* Positive charges speed up moving towards lower potential. Negative charges speed up moving towards higher potential.
|
||||
* Electric field points towards decreasing potential.
|
||||
* For particle starting at rest, kinetic energy gained equals magnitude of $q\Delta V$, lets you solve for final speed.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Charge is quantized, integer multiple of $e=1.6x10^{-19}$.
|
||||
* $q=\pm ne$
|
||||
* Coulomb's law: $F=k\frac{p_1p_2}{n^2}$; directly proportional to charge, inversely proportional to distance.
|
||||
* Same signs repel, opposite signs attract.
|
||||
* Electric force is stronger than gravity for tiny particles, gravity controls large scale because big objects are usually neutral.
|
||||
* Electric permittivity measures how much a material polarizes in a field. Conductors let charge move freely, insulators don't.
|
||||
* Only need to calculate force for 4 or less interacting charges unless situation is highly symmetrical.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Electric field at a point = electric force on a positive test charge divided by charge = $\vec E=\frac{\vec F_E}{q}$ (unit N/C).
|
||||
* Test charge's impact on field is negligible.
|
||||
* Field lines point towards negative and away from positive. Closer lines = stronger field.
|
||||
* Net field from several charges is sum of vectors.
|
||||
* Inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium field is zero. Charge sits on surface, surface field is perpendicular to surface.
|
||||
* Inside a charged insulator inside can be nonzero since charge stays instead of moving to surface.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
|
||||
[[physics]]
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Electric potential energy is work required from external force to assemble charges from infinity. Infinity set is the zero reference.
|
||||
* Elastic potential energy: $U_E=\frac{1}{4\pi \epsilon_0}\frac{q_1q_2}{r}=k\frac{q_1q_2}{r}$
|
||||
* Positive $U_E$ means repulsive interaction from like charges.
|
||||
* Negative $U_E$ means attractive interaction from unlike charges.
|
||||
* For multiple charges, add potential energy of each pair.
|
||||
* $U_E$ is a scalar.
|
||||
* Energy is conserved, as charges move potential is traded for kinetic.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Electric potential is energy per charge: $V=\Delta U_E/q$ (Volts)
|
||||
* Potential comes from multiple point charges added as scalars.
|
||||
* Potential can be positive or negative, reference set at infinity.
|
||||
* Electric field points towards decreasing potential. $|\vec E|=|\Delta V/\Delta r|$
|
||||
* Equipotent lines (isolines) are perpendicular to field vectors. No work is done moving charge along equipotent.
|
||||
* Conductors in electrical contact redistribute charge on the surface until it sits at the same potential.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
||||
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Net charge changes only when charge travels in and out of a system.
|
||||
* Charging usually happens through electron transfer.
|
||||
* Induced charge separation polarizes an object without contact. Happens in neutral conductors and insulators.
|
||||
* In conservation problems, charge of separated objects should sum to charge of system.
|
||||
* Grounding occurs when a system connects to a large neutral object.
|
||||
* Conductors let electrons move easily, insulators only let bound charges shift slightly.
|
||||
* Main 3 ways to charge: friction induction contact.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
||||
[[Fluids]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Pressure difference between fluids causes flow.
|
||||
* Continuity equation: $A_1v_1=A_2v_2$ expresses conservation of mass. Narrow area force faster speeds to incompressible fluids.
|
||||
* Bernoulli's equation: $P_1+pgy_1+\frac{1}{2}pv_1^2=P_1+pgy_2+\frac{1}{2}pv_2^2$ expresses conservation of energy along a streamline.
|
||||
* Faster fluid has lower pressure and vice versa
|
||||
* Torricelli's theorem: $v=\sqrt{2g\Delta y}$ is derived from energy conservation and gives exit speed of draining fluid.
|
||||
* Assume fluids are ideal unless stated otherwise.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
||||
[[Fluids]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Fluid particles obey Newton laws.
|
||||
* Buoyant force is a net upwards force on an object in a fluid, caused by pressure and increases with depth.
|
||||
* Buoyant force equals weight of fluid displaced: $F_b=pVg$ where p is fluid density and V is displaced volume.
|
||||
* For a floating object, buoyant force equals the object's weight: $V_{submerged}/V=p_{object}/P_{fluid}$
|
||||
* Object floats when density is less than fluids and sinks when it's greater.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
|
||||
[[physics]]
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
||||
[[Fluids]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Fluids are substances with no fixed shape.
|
||||
* Density: $p=m/V$
|
||||
* Difference between states of matter is how strongly their particles interact.
|
||||
* Object floats when density is less than surrounds density.
|
||||
* Ideal fluid has no viscosity and is incompressible.
|
||||
* Density changes with temperature and pressure.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
|
||||
[[Fluids]]
|
||||
Pressure is perpendicular force acting on a surface divided by area.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* $P=\frac{F_\perp}{A}$
|
||||
* Scalar.
|
||||
* Incompressible fluids keep constant density and volume when pressure changes.
|
||||
* $P=P_0+pgh$
|
||||
* At the fluid surface h is 0.
|
||||
* Measured in pascals (1 Pa = N/m^2)
|
||||
# Absolute vs Gauge Pressure
|
||||
Absolute pressure is total pressure: $P=P_0+pgh$, where $P_0$ is a reference pressure such as atmospheric pressure ($P_{atm}$) and gauge pressures is $pgh$. Positive gauge pressure means above atmospheric, negative means below.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
[[Work Energy and Power]]
|
||||
|
||||
# SUMMARY
|
||||
* System of one object can only have KE.
|
||||
* Mechanical energy is just KE + PE.
|
||||
* If work = 0 and no no conservative forces then ME = 0
|
||||
* If work is done then systems total energy changes
|
||||
* Choice of system boundary decides if an interaction is internal or external (no shit)
|
||||
* Nonconservative forces like friction or air resistance can dissipate mechanical energy as thermal energy or sound.
|
||||
|
||||
## Mechanical Energy Components
|
||||
* Kinetic energy is energy of movement
|
||||
* Potential energy is energy due to position or config
|
||||
* Total ME stays the same when only conservative forces act inside the system
|
||||
|
||||
By choosing the system carefully, you can set up systems where even if things in the system change no energy exits of enters, called Constant Energy Systems.
|
||||
|
||||
When a system energy changes, that change matches the change across the system boundary. Energy entering increases total energy, energy leaving decreases it, and net change equals sum of in and out.
|
||||
|
||||
## System Selection and Energy Changes
|
||||
|
||||
|Comparison|Falling ball as system|Ball–Earth system|
|
||||
|---|---|---|
|
||||
|System contents|Ball only|Ball and Earth|
|
||||
|Gravity|External interaction; does work on the ball|Internal interaction|
|
||||
|Gravitational potential energy|Not included|Included|
|
||||
|Energy equation|ΔK=WgravityΔK=Wgravity|Ki+Ug,i=Kf+Ug,fKi+Ug,i=Kf+Ug,f|
|
||||
|Mechanical energy conserved when air resistance is negligible?|No; the ball’s kinetic energy changes as energy transfers into the system|Yes; energy converts between kinetic and gravitational potential energy|
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
[[Linear Momentum]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Net force equals $\vec F_{net}=\frac{\Delta \vec p}{\Delta t}$
|
||||
* Impulse is average force over time interval: $\vec J = \vec F_{avg}\Delta t$
|
||||
* Impulse-momentum theory is impulse = change in momentum: $$\vec J=\Delta \vec p = \vec p-\vec p_0$$
|
||||
* Integral of a force vs time graph equals impulse, slope of momentum vs time graph = net force
|
||||
* Impulse units are N * s (kg * m/s)
|
||||
* When mass is constant F=ma comes from Impulse-Momentum theory
|
||||
|
||||
|Term|Definition|
|
||||
|---|---|
|
||||
|axis of rotation|The fixed line about which a system rotates.|
|
||||
|force component perpendicular|The portion of an applied force that acts at a right angle to the position vector from the axis of rotation.|
|
||||
|force diagram|A diagram used to represent and analyze the forces and torques exerted on a rigid system, showing the magnitude, direction, and point of application of each force relative to the axis of rotation.|
|
||||
|free-body diagram|A visual representation that shows all forces exerted on an object or system, with each force drawn as a vector originating from the object's center of mass.|
|
||||
|lever arm|The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of an applied force.|
|
||||
|line of action|The straight line along which a force acts, extending infinitely in both directions.|
|
||||
|perpendicular force|The component of a force that is perpendicular to the position vector, which directly contributes to torque production.|
|
||||
|position vector|A vector drawn from the axis of rotation to the point where a force is applied on a rigid system.|
|
||||
|rigid system|A system that holds its shape but in which different points on the system move in different directions during rotation.|
|
||||
|torque|A measure of the rotational effect of a force on a rigid system, calculated as the product of the force and its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.|
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
|
||||
[[Linear Momentum]]
|
||||
|
||||
Total momentum of system stays the same when there is no external force acting on it.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Total momentum is vector sum
|
||||
* If net external force is 0, then momentum stays the same.
|
||||
* Momentum is conserved in every action
|
||||
* Nonzero net external force transfers momentum in or out of system, which is impulse.
|
||||
* Center of mass velocity stays constant when no external force.
|
||||
|
||||
# Center of Mass Velocity
|
||||
$$\vec v_{cm}=\frac{\Sigma \vec p_i}{\Sigma m_i}$$
|
||||
Treats whole system like momentum is concentrated in one point.
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
|
||||
[[Linear Momentum]]
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Elastic collision: total kinetic energy stays the same
|
||||
* Inelastic collision: energy is lost to things like heat and sound
|
||||
* Perfectly inelastic collision: objects stick together and share one velocity
|
||||
* Momentum is conserved in every collision where net external force is zero
|
||||
* "Lost" kinetic energy just transforms into different forms, so total energy is preserved.
|
||||
|
||||
Perfectly inelastic collisions:
|
||||
$$v_f=\frac{m_1v_1+m_2v_2}{m_1+m_2}$$
|
||||
![[Pasted image 20260819112153.png]]
|
||||
# Elastic Collision Energy Conservation Formula
|
||||
$$\frac{1}{2}m_1v^2_{1i}+\frac{1}{2}m_2v^2_{2i}=\frac{1}{2}m_1v^2_{1f}+\frac{1}{2}m_2v^2_{2f}$$
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
|
||||
[[physics]]
|
||||
Linear momentum: $$\vec p=m\vec v$$
|
||||
$\vec p$ is momentum in kg * m/s
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Momentum: $\vec p=m\vec v$
|
||||
* It's a vector
|
||||
* Doubling either mass or velocity doubles momentum
|
||||
* In one dimension, assign positive and negative signs
|
||||
* Collision is an interaction where forces between objects are much larger than net external force on system
|
||||
* Explosion is interaction where internal forces push parts of a system apart
|
||||
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
||||
[[Modern Physics]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Atoms have a small positive nucleus made of protons and neutrons and are usually surrounded by electrons.
|
||||
* Nuclear notation: $^A_ZX$, Z protons A mass X atomic symbol
|
||||
* Ion is atom with net charge.
|
||||
* In Bohr model, Coulomb force between nucleus and electrons provides centripetal force for circular orbit: $F_e=k\frac{q_1q_2}{r^2}$ supplies $F_{net}=m\frac{v^2}{r}$
|
||||
* Circumference must equal a whole number of de Broglies wavelength: $n\lambda=2\pi r$
|
||||
* Atomic structure here is only defined as energy levels, no probability functions yet.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
||||
[[Modern Physics]]
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* Quantum theory developed because classical physics can't explain atomic spectra, blackbody radiation or photoelectric effect.
|
||||
* Photons are electrically neutral massless particles.
|
||||
* $E=hf$, with $h$ being Planck's constant.
|
||||
* Photons travel at $c=$ 299792458 m/s (or $c=3*10^8$ for simplification) in a free space, and are slowed by a factor of the medium's index of refraction.
|
||||
* Particles like electrons show wave behavior, quantified by de Broglie wavelength $\lambda=h/p$. Wavelength increases as momentum decreases.
|
||||
* Quantum effects matter when a particles de Broglie wavelength is comparable to the system.
|
||||
* In bound systems, energy and momentum are discrete.
|
||||
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
|
||||
[[Oscillations]]
|
||||
It's when a restoring force is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.
|
||||
|
||||
# Summary
|
||||
* $F_x=-k\Delta x$
|
||||
* Acceleration always points opposite to displacement.
|
||||
* Equilibrium is where net force is zero.
|
||||
* Maximum displacement is amplitude.
|
||||
* Velocity is maximum at equilibrium.
|
||||
* Pendulum acts as SHM at low angles because restoring force is proportional to angle.
|
||||
|
||||
Some files were not shown because too many files have changed in this diff Show More
Reference in New Issue
Block a user