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Author SHA1 Message Date
johnruina 08caa451ef vault backup: 2026-09-24 11:50:31 2026-09-24 11:50:31 -04:00
johnruina bd7d7e5f8f vault backup: 2026-09-22 01:37:31 2026-09-22 01:37:31 -04:00
johnruina 933f1d6ebd vault backup: 2026-09-19 18:53:04 2026-09-19 18:53:04 -04:00
johnruina 7c81501c6f vault backup: 2026-09-17 11:29:36 2026-09-17 11:29:36 -04:00
johnruina c426fa2f80 Classification of Prokaryotic Cells\ 2026-09-16 11:27:19 -04:00
johnruina e050077c52 2026-09-14 11:07:46: Viruses 3 2026-09-14 11:07:46 -04:00
johnruina a9a6ad2c1a 2026-09-14 10:43:03: Viruses 2 2026-09-14 10:43:04 -04:00
johnruina fba8eb990e 2026-09-11 20:34:48: Viruses 2026-09-11 20:34:49 -04:00
johnruina d612a58298 vault backup: 2026-09-10 01:15:21 2026-09-10 01:15:21 -04:00
johnruina a777a53d76 vault backup: 2026-09-06 23:41:08 2026-09-06 23:41:08 -04:00
johnruina c48a868b5e stuff 2026-09-04 18:07:18 -04:00
johnruina 12d0ed17c8 2026-09-04 12:31:07: Physics 2 2026-09-04 12:31:07 -04:00
johnruina 5b887e9bc7 2026-09-04 08:21:15: Thermal Energy Transfer and Equilibrium 2026-09-04 08:21:16 -04:00
johnruina ed3f5ef304 2026-09-04 00:36:20: New Goals 2026-09-04 00:36:21 -04:00
johnruina a4cfbf7f28 2026-09-02 01:03:43: AP Physics 2 2026-09-02 01:03:43 -04:00
johnruina ed5d20bf6d vault backup: 2026-08-21 18:02:19 2026-08-21 18:02:19 -04:00
johnruina e4b3f3c32d vault backup: 2026-08-21 11:27:13 2026-08-21 11:27:14 -04:00
johnruina 676f3f72dd Fluid and Conservation Laws: 2026-08-21 00:32:18 2026-08-21 00:32:19 -04:00
johnruina 1ae629563c 2026-08-20 21:54:58: Fluids 2026-08-20 21:54:59 -04:00
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## Drawing
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[[Organic Chemistry]]
Simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
Non-polar, as they contain only hydrogen and carbon.
They are classified as aromatic or aliphatic. Aliphatic hydrocarbons have carbon atoms bonded in chains or rings, including straight chains and cyclic alkenes, alkanes and alkynes. Aromatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons based on aromatic benzene group.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that only contain single bonds, alkenes contain double bonds and alkynes contain triple bonds.
Alkanes in the shape of a ring are called cycloalkanes. Alkanes not in the shape of rings have formula $C_nH_{2n+2}$. Cycloalkanes are in the shape of rings and have the formula $C_nH_{2n}$. Straight chain alkenes with one double bond have the same formula as cycloalkanes. Straight chain alkynes with one triple bond have the formula $C_nH_{2n-2}$.
Functional groups are groups of reactive bonded atoms that appear in all members of a family. Reactive double bonds are the functional group of alkenes.
# Naming Organic Compounds
Naming organic compounds usually follows the pattern of prefix + root + suffix.
Root names:
| Number of Carbon atoms | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| ---------------------- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | --- | --- |
| Root | meth | eth | prop | but | pent | hex | hept | oct | non | dec |
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stuff needed to be done stuff needed to be done
- [ ] print a robot arm
- [ ] ⏫ 📅 2026-09-01🛫 2026-08-15 FINISH STUDYING AP BIOLOGY ATLEAST - [ ] write a scientific paper
- [ ] 🔽 FINISH DOING SOMETHING WITH THE ESP 32 - [ ] make a human brain model using c++
- [ ] 🔼 GRAB THAT 3D PRINTER - [ ] vulkan maybe? dont care too much for it
- [ ] unreal engine maybe?
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[[biology]] [[Biology]]
* In the exam, always connect an organelle to a specific function * In the exam, always connect an organelle to a specific function
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
[[biology]] [[Biology]]
Cell structure and function boils down to the idea that each subcellular component has a structure that supports a singular job. Cell structure and function boils down to the idea that each subcellular component has a structure that supports a singular job.
@@ -1 +1 @@
[[biology]] [[Biology]]
@@ -1 +1 @@
[[biology]] [[Biology]]
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[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
Species is a group in organism that interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring. Gaps though, bacteria don't sexually reproduce, and there are separate species that are able to mate and create fertile children.
Three types of species.
* Morphological Species:
* Studies shape, size, physics, structural features.
* Simple, quick.
* Most populations have variation.
* Biological Species:
* Ability to reproduce in nature and produce fertile offspring.
* Most commonly accepted definition, objective.
* Can't test on asexually reproducing, extinct, and/or physically separated organisms.
* Phylogenetic:
* Studies evolutionary history and relationships among organisms.
* Can be applied to extinct species.
* Not all evolutionary histories are known.
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[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
Characteristics:
* Mainly unicellular
* Under Eukarya domain.
* Eukaryotic cells.
* Reproduces sexually and/or asexually.
* Diverse, not closely related.
Classification:
* Animal-like (protozoans):
* Heterotrophs.
* Can move.
* Plant-like:
* Autotrophs, can photosynthesize.
* Photoautotrophs.
* Some are capable of consuming other organisms when light is unavailable.
* Can be unicellular or multicellular.
* Fungus-like:
* Absorbs nutrients from other organisms.
* Heterotroph/decomposers, outer digestion.
* Cell wall is not chitin.
* Examples are slime moulds and water moulds.
| Phylum | Characteristics | Example |
| ------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ----------------------------------- |
| Cercozoan | Pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic extension for movement/feeding. | *Amoeba proteus* |
| Cilliophora | Cilia, short hair like extensions for sweeping food or movement. | *Paramecium caudatum* |
| Zoomastigma | Flagella, long tail like whip. | *Trichonympha* |
| Sporozoa | Vector, uses living organism to transmit infection from one organism to another. Parasitic to animals. | *Plasmodium vivax* (causes malaria) |
| Myxomycpta | Many nuculei, engulfs like amoeba. | Plasmodia |
| Acrasiomycota | Individual amoeboid cells, one nuculeus. | Cellular slime mold |
| Oomycota | Filamentous, resemble fungi, release enzymes to absorb nutrients. | *Water mold* |
Paramecium:
* Cilia.
* Asexual (binary fission/sexual.
* Gullet.
* Outer protein covering.
* Lives in water.
![[Pasted image 20260924105000.png|371]]
Amoeba:
* Pseudopods.
* Extension of cytoskeleton.
![[Pasted image 20260924105030.png]]
Euglenoids/Euglena:
* Plant-like protista.
* Flagella.
* Unicellular.
* Capable of ingesting nutrients.
![[Pasted image 20260924105525.png]]
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[[biology]]
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[[Organic Chemistry]]
Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon. It was originally classified as compounds originating from living beings, but a scientist made an organic compound inorganically using ammonium cyanate.
Carbon usually forms 4 covalent bonds. If a compound contains only single bonds, then it's saturated, unsaturated otherwise.
Carbons unique bonding allows it to form many shapes, including rings and chains.
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[[chemistry]]
**"calculation of relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions"**
avogardos numbers = $6.02*10^{23}$
n=mole=conversion factor=$6.02*10^{23}$ things (atoms/ions/molecules/formulaunits/etc)
1 pair = 2 things
1 dozen = 12 things
one atomic unit ~= 1 gram / avogardos number
avogardos number x atomic unit ~= 1 gram
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[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
covalents are sharing
ionics are giving
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[[chemistry]]
**main types**
synthesis
decomposition
single displacement
double displacement
combustion
# synthesis
just two substances coming together to form a compound,
reactant + reactant ->
# single displacement
requires the replacee to havea a lower activity series than the replacer
# Double Displacement
double displacement is a reaction of 2 compounds
pos and negs switch places to form new stuff
only works with ionics
only occurs if one of 3 propduces is formed
- percipitate (s)
- gas (g)
- covalent compound such as water (l)
# Combustion
is hydrocarbon react with oxygen to create co2 and h2o
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[[ROOT]] [[root]]
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[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
how much attraction an element has to electrons
when bonded things different in electronegativity is too high, one basically steals the electron from the other forming an ionic bond, and if it's in the middle then it's polar, and if the difference isnt large than the 2 play nice and share it with a covalent
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[[Stoichiometry]]
empirical formulas are the simplest whole number ratio of atom in a substance
eg acetic acid and glucose share an empherical of ch_2o
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[[Stoichiometry]]
law of definite proportions states: the elements in a chemical compound are always present in the same proportion by mass
$percentcomposition=\frac{massofelement}{totalmassofcompound}*100%$
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[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
naming chemical compounds
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[[chemistry]]
periods are rows
groups are columns
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[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
[[electronegativity]]
when 2 bonding atoms have an $\Delta$ EN greater than 0.5 and less than 1.7, it's a polar covalent bond
polar covalents have an imbalance of electrons, causing partial positive charges and partial negative charges, the atom with the stronger EN pulls the electron more but not enough to completely take it, making the electron closer and giving it a partial negative charge
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[[chemistry]]
**"a charged chemical species composed of two or more atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex, that can be considered to be acting as a single unit"
H stable at a duet 2d
Be stable at a tetrad 4e
B stable at a sextet 6e
| **Name** | **Formula** |
| ---------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Polyatomic ions (carrying negative charge)** | |
| Hydroxide | OH [Matter and Chemical Bonding]]<br><br>add or remove valence e according to charge<br><br>H stable at a duet 2d<br>Be stable at a tetrad 4e<br>B stable at a sextet 6e<br>all other elements in pe 1 and 2 require octets 8e (common ball)<br>per 3 and below can go above an octet (common ball)<br><br><br><br>– |
| Acetate | CH3COO – |
| Cyanide | CN – |
| Chlorate | ClO3 – |
| Chlorite | ClO2 – |
| Nitrate | NO3 – |
| Nitrite | NO2 – |
| Hypochlorite | OCl – |
| Hypobromite | OBr – |
| Iodate | IO3 – |
| Bisulphite | HSO3 – |
| Bisulphate | HSO4 – |
| Permanganate | MnO4 – |
| Thiocyanate | SCN – |
| Hydrogen carbonate | HCO 3– |
| Carbonate | CO3 2- |
| Sulphate | SO4 2- |
| Sulphite | SO3 2- |
| Oxalate | C2O4 2- |
| Silicate | SiO3 2- |
| Manganate | MnO4 2- |
| Thiosulphate | S2O3 2- |
| Chromate | CrO4 2- |
| Dichromate | Cr2O7 2- |
| Phosphate | PO4 3- |
| Phosphite | PO3 3- |
| Aluminate | AlO3 3- |
| Arsenite | AsO3 3- |
| Arsenate | AsO4 3- |
| Borate | BO3 3- |
| Pyrophosphate | P2O7 4- |
| **Polyatomic ions (carrying positive charge)** | |
| Ammonium | NH 4+ |
## List of monatomic ions
- The ions made of a single atom are called **simple ions or monatomic ions**.
| **Name** | **Formula** |
| --------------------------------------------- | ----------- |
| **Monatomic ions (carrying positive charge)** | |
| Hydrogen | H+ |
| Potassium | K+ |
| Sodium | Na+ |
| Silver | Ag+ |
| Cuprous | Cu+ |
| Aurous | Au+ |
| Barium | Ba2+ |
| Calcium | Ca2+ |
| Magnesium | Mg2+ |
| Cupric | Cu2+ |
| Ferrous | Fe2+ |
| Stannous | Sn2+ |
| Mercuric | Hg2+ |
| Zinc | Zn2+ |
| Plumbous | Pb2+ |
| Aluminum | Al3+ |
| Ferric | Fe3+ |
| Auric | Au3+ |
| Arseneous | As3+ |
| Plumbic | Pb4+ |
| Stannic | Sn4+ |
| **Monatomic ions (carrying negative charge)** | |
| Chloride | Cl– |
| Bromide | Br – |
| Iodide | I– |
| Oxide | O2- |
| Sulphide | S2- |
| Nitride | N3- |
| Phosphide | P3- |
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[[chemical reactions]]
shrimple little table to check how stuff reacts with other stuff,
- sol for soluble which means aqueous
- ppt for precipitate
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[[chemical reactions]]
[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
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[[Matter and Chemical Bonding]]
each lone pair is E
A is central atom
X for each binded stuff
eg $H_2O$ is $AX_2E_2$
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[[literacy]] [[Literacy]]
really buzzy buzzwords really buzzy buzzwords
praxis - implementation of a theory praxis - implementation of a theory
@@ -9,6 +9,9 @@ vicissitude - change/ quality of changing
banal - so common ball that it's annoying banal - so common ball that it's annoying
atrophy - partial/completely wasting away of a part of body atrophy - partial/completely wasting away of a part of body
impiety - lack of respect for something considered sacred impiety - lack of respect for something considered sacred
unequivocally - in a way that leaves no doubt
magnanimous - great of soul
luculent - clear/easily understood/light/shining
mildly buzzy buzzwords mildly buzzy buzzwords
@@ -20,4 +23,9 @@ incongruence - out of place/absurd
olfactory - part of sensory system used for smells olfactory - part of sensory system used for smells
nebulous - misty/foggy/mysterious nebulous - misty/foggy/mysterious
umbra - dark area umbra - dark area
exergy - useful energy exergy - useful energy
incontrovertibly - undeniably
Archaic Buzzwords:
Forsooth - indeed/in truth
Prithee - express a wish
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[[literacy]] [[Literacy]]
things you use in an argument with no bearing to logic or the argument
ad hominem - insulting the other guy | NAME | DESCRIPTION |
ad lapidem - alex special, saying no without an argument | -------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
fallacy fallacy - calling out fallacies without actually providing a counterargument | Ad Hominem | Insulting opposition without argument. |
appeal to hypocrisy/tu quoque - calling out another persons hypocrisy like eg you hate this game but you dont make any | Ad Lapidem (Appeal to the stone) | Saying no without an argument. |
possibiliter ergo probabiliter/appeal to probability - this is likely so it must be true | Fallacy Fallacy | Calling out fallacies without argument. |
false dilemma- presenting something as either this or that when there could be more options | Tu Quoque (Appeal to Hypocrisy) | Calling out hypocrisy, example being "You say this game is bad, but you don't make any." Such an argument makes no sense. |
straw man - misrepresents opponents argument to make it easier to attack, eg "gmos are bad? so youre saying you like farmers losing money because of bugs?" | Possibiliter Ergo Probabiliter | Claiming that something is likely so it must be true. |
| False Dilemma | Claiming something is either this or that, despite it being a gradient or there being more possiblilities. |
| Straw man | Misrepresenting argument to make it easier to counter, example being "You dislike pedophiles? Are you saying disciplining children is bad?" |
| Cherry Picking | Picks out specific parts of evidence that supports their claim despite there being tons of other evidence that go against it. |
| Proof by Assertion | Reiterating argument without new evidence. |
| Non Sequitur | A statement that does not follow the logical flow of the previous. |
| Bandwagon | Belief that claim is right because tons of people do it. |
| Slippery Slope | Claiming one minor step will lead to major consequences. |
| | |
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[[math]] [[Math]]
basically just the comedically easy stuff basically just the comedically easy stuff
like what do i even write here it's all too easy like what do i even write here it's all too easy
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[[math]] [[Math]]
basically just the hard stuff basically just the hard stuff
fundamental theorem of calculus![[Pasted image 20260816065000.png]]![[Pasted image 20260816065016.png]] fundamental theorem of calculus![[Pasted image 20260816065000.png]]![[Pasted image 20260816065016.png]]
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[[math]] [[Math]]
# different types of games # different types of games
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[[math]] [[Math]]
[[vectors]] [[vectors]]
[[matrices]] [[matrices]]
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[[math]] [[Math]]
basically arrays of arrays basically arrays of arrays
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[[math]] [[Math]]
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the stupidly easy stuff the stupidly easy stuff
[[math]] [[Math]]
basically just ^2 shit basically just ^2 shit
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[[math]] [[Math]]
basically just the easy stuff basically just the easy stuff
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[[medical]] [[Medical]]
### Therapeutic class ### Therapeutic class
Analgesics - pain relievers (opiods,nsaids) Analgesics - pain relievers (opiods,nsaids)
Antibiotics/Antimicrobial - treat bacterial and fungal infections Antibiotics/Antimicrobial - treat bacterial and fungal infections
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
[[physics]]
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Measured in capacitance ($C=\frac{Q}{\Delta V}$), value fixed by physical build $C=\kappa \epsilon_0\frac{A}{d}$
* Field between plates is uniform except near edges. $E_C=\frac{Q}{\kappa \epsilon_0 A}$ (equal to $\frac{\Delta V}{d}$)
* Charged particle between plates feels constant force. Projectile with constant accel.
* Stored energy written as: $U_C=\frac{1}{2}Q\Delta V=\frac{1}{2}C(\Delta V)^2=\frac{Q^2}{2C}$.
* Adding dielectric raises capacitance by factor of $\kappa$, sets up induced field inside dielectric that opposes plate field.
* On AP exam, only parallel plate capacitors required, edge effects ignored unless stated otherwise.
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Change in electric potential energy for charge moving between 2 potentials $\Delta U_E=q\Delta V$ (J)
* q can be positive or negative. $\Delta V=V_{final}-V_{initial}$.
* Energy is conserved: $\Delta K=-\Delta U_E$
* Positive charges speed up moving towards lower potential. Negative charges speed up moving towards higher potential.
* Electric field points towards decreasing potential.
* For particle starting at rest, kinetic energy gained equals magnitude of $q\Delta V$, lets you solve for final speed.
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Charge is quantized, integer multiple of $e=1.6x10^{-19}$.
* $q=\pm ne$
* Coulomb's law: $F=k\frac{p_1p_2}{n^2}$; directly proportional to charge, inversely proportional to distance.
* Same signs repel, opposite signs attract.
* Electric force is stronger than gravity for tiny particles, gravity controls large scale because big objects are usually neutral.
* Electric permittivity measures how much a material polarizes in a field. Conductors let charge move freely, insulators don't.
* Only need to calculate force for 4 or less interacting charges unless situation is highly symmetrical.
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Electric field at a point = electric force on a positive test charge divided by charge = $\vec E=\frac{\vec F_E}{q}$ (unit N/C).
* Test charge's impact on field is negligible.
* Field lines point towards negative and away from positive. Closer lines = stronger field.
* Net field from several charges is sum of vectors.
* Inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium field is zero. Charge sits on surface, surface field is perpendicular to surface.
* Inside a charged insulator inside can be nonzero since charge stays instead of moving to surface.
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Electric potential energy is work required from external force to assemble charges from infinity. Infinity set is the zero reference.
* Elastic potential energy: $U_E=\frac{1}{4\pi \epsilon_0}\frac{q_1q_2}{r}=k\frac{q_1q_2}{r}$
* Positive $U_E$ means repulsive interaction from like charges.
* Negative $U_E$ means attractive interaction from unlike charges.
* For multiple charges, add potential energy of each pair.
* $U_E$ is a scalar.
* Energy is conserved, as charges move potential is traded for kinetic.
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[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Electric potential is energy per charge: $V=\Delta U_E/q$ (Volts)
* Potential comes from multiple point charges added as scalars.
* Potential can be positive or negative, reference set at infinity.
* Electric field points towards decreasing potential. $|\vec E|=|\Delta V/\Delta r|$
* Equipotent lines (isolines) are perpendicular to field vectors. No work is done moving charge along equipotent.
* Conductors in electrical contact redistribute charge on the surface until it sits at the same potential.
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[[Electric Force, Field, and Potential]]
# Summary
* Net charge changes only when charge travels in and out of a system.
* Charging usually happens through electron transfer.
* Induced charge separation polarizes an object without contact. Happens in neutral conductors and insulators.
* In conservation problems, charge of separated objects should sum to charge of system.
* Grounding occurs when a system connects to a large neutral object.
* Conductors let electrons move easily, insulators only let bound charges shift slightly.
* Main 3 ways to charge: friction induction contact.
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[[Fluids]]
# Summary
* Pressure difference between fluids causes flow.
* Continuity equation: $A_1v_1=A_2v_2$ expresses conservation of mass. Narrow area force faster speeds to incompressible fluids.
* Bernoulli's equation: $P_1+pgy_1+\frac{1}{2}pv_1^2=P_1+pgy_2+\frac{1}{2}pv_2^2$ expresses conservation of energy along a streamline.
* Faster fluid has lower pressure and vice versa
* Torricelli's theorem: $v=\sqrt{2g\Delta y}$ is derived from energy conservation and gives exit speed of draining fluid.
* Assume fluids are ideal unless stated otherwise.
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[[Fluids]]
# Summary
* Fluid particles obey Newton laws.
* Buoyant force is a net upwards force on an object in a fluid, caused by pressure and increases with depth.
* Buoyant force equals weight of fluid displaced: $F_b=pVg$ where p is fluid density and V is displaced volume.
* For a floating object, buoyant force equals the object's weight: $V_{submerged}/V=p_{object}/P_{fluid}$
* Object floats when density is less than fluids and sinks when it's greater.
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
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[[Fluids]]
# Summary
* Fluids are substances with no fixed shape.
* Density: $p=m/V$
* Difference between states of matter is how strongly their particles interact.
* Object floats when density is less than surrounds density.
* Ideal fluid has no viscosity and is incompressible.
* Density changes with temperature and pressure.
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[[Fluids]]
Pressure is perpendicular force acting on a surface divided by area.
# Summary
* $P=\frac{F_\perp}{A}$
* Scalar.
* Incompressible fluids keep constant density and volume when pressure changes.
* $P=P_0+pgh$
* At the fluid surface h is 0.
* Measured in pascals (1 Pa = N/m^2)
# Absolute vs Gauge Pressure
Absolute pressure is total pressure: $P=P_0+pgh$, where $P_0$ is a reference pressure such as atmospheric pressure ($P_{atm}$) and gauge pressures is $pgh$. Positive gauge pressure means above atmospheric, negative means below.
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
"Forces arise from interactions between two objects or systems of objects. Use free body diagrams and motion models to analyze the effects of forces on systems. Translate between different representations of forces and motion, and use models to analyze how interactions cause change. Practice deriving equations from fundamental principles and use proportional reasoning to make predictions." "Forces arise from interactions between two objects or systems of objects. Use free body diagrams and motion models to analyze the effects of forces on systems. Translate between different representations of forces and motion, and use models to analyze how interactions cause change. Practice deriving equations from fundamental principles and use proportional reasoning to make predictions."
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
Linear momentum: $$\vec p=m\vec v$$ Linear momentum: $$\vec p=m\vec v$$
$\vec p$ is momentum in kg * m/s $\vec p$ is momentum in kg * m/s
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
force exerted on a charge in relation to a magnetic and electric field force exerted on a charge in relation to a magnetic and electric field
formula is formula is
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[[Modern Physics]]
# Summary
* Atoms have a small positive nucleus made of protons and neutrons and are usually surrounded by electrons.
* Nuclear notation: $^A_ZX$, Z protons A mass X atomic symbol
* Ion is atom with net charge.
* In Bohr model, Coulomb force between nucleus and electrons provides centripetal force for circular orbit: $F_e=k\frac{q_1q_2}{r^2}$ supplies $F_{net}=m\frac{v^2}{r}$
* Circumference must equal a whole number of de Broglies wavelength: $n\lambda=2\pi r$
* Atomic structure here is only defined as energy levels, no probability functions yet.
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[[physics]]
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[[Modern Physics]]
# Summary
* Quantum theory developed because classical physics can't explain atomic spectra, blackbody radiation or photoelectric effect.
* Photons are electrically neutral massless particles.
* $E=hf$, with $h$ being Planck's constant.
* Photons travel at $c=$ 299792458 m/s (or $c=3*10^8$ for simplification) in a free space, and are slowed by a factor of the medium's index of refraction.
* Particles like electrons show wave behavior, quantified by de Broglie wavelength $\lambda=h/p$. Wavelength increases as momentum decreases.
* Quantum effects matter when a particles de Broglie wavelength is comparable to the system.
* In bound systems, energy and momentum are discrete.
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
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[[physics]]
# Constants
* $R$: Ideal gas constant, 8.31 J/mol$*$k
* $k_B$: Boltzmann constant, $1.38*10^{-23}$J/K
# Notation
* $V$ is volume (m^3)
* $T$ is temperature (Kelvin usually)
# Tips
* Assume fluids are ideal unless stated otherwise.
* Kelvin is usually used over Celsius
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[[Physics]]
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[[Thermodynamics]]
# Summary
* Entropy describes energy's tendency to spread out and cause some of the energy to become useless.
* Entropy decreases when energy is organized, increases when spread out.
* Higher entropy means more useless energy.
* Total entropy of an isolated system never decreases over time.
* Entropy remains constant only in perfectly reversible processes (theoretical).
* IRL, entropy always increases.
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[[Thermodynamics]]
# Summary
* First law: $\Delta U=Q+W$
* Q is heat added W is work done
* Internal energy $U$ is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy. Ideal gas has no internal potential energy, so solely kinetic.
* Ideal monatomic gas has formula: $U=\frac{3}{2}Nk_BT=\frac{3}{2}nRT$
* Work done on gas by external pressure: $W=-P\Delta V$
* Negative sign means expansion does negative work on gas.
* On a PV graph, integrals are work done, and straight lines are isotherms.
* Four special processes:
* Isovolumeric $W = 0$
* Isothermic $\Delta U = 0$ For an ideal gas
* Isobaric $W=-P\Delta V$
* Adiabatic $Q=0$
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[[Thermodynamics]]
# Summary
* $PV=nRT=Nk_BT$
* P = pressure V = volume T = temperature R = Ideal gas constant (8.31 mol/J) n = number of moles $k_B$ = Boltzmann constant
* Absolute temperature (kelvins)
* Extrapolating P-T or V-T graphs when V or P are constant will pass through in zero K.
# Properties of an Ideal Gas
* Particles move at random instantaneous velocity and in all direction.
* Collision between gas molecules is elastic.
* Volume of individual gas particles is negligible to the gas volume.
* Gas molecules don't experience no appreciable forces except during collisions.
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[[Thermodynamics]]
# Summary
* Gas pressure comes from atoms colliding with the wall and transferring momentum. $P=\frac{F_{\perp}}{A}$
* Gas pressure exists throughout the gas, not just against the walls.
* Temperature is average kinetic energy of atoms: $K_{avg}=\frac{3}{2}k_BT$
* Boltzmann constant: $k_B=1.380649*10^{-23} J*K^{-1}$
* Root-means-square speed links speed to kinetic energy: $\frac{1}{2}mv_{rms}^2$
* $K_{avg}=\frac{3}{2}k_BT=\frac{1}{2}mv_{rms}^2$
* $v_{rms}$ rises with temperature.
* Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution shows spread of atomic speeds. Higher temperatures broaden the curve and increases the peak speed.
* Temperature must be Kelvin to work.
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[[Thermodynamics]]
* Energy required to change temperature: $Q=mc\Delta T$
* Rate of conduction: $\frac{Q}{\Delta t}=\frac{kA\Delta T}{L}$
* Specific heat ($c$) is intrinsic and determines the amount of energy required to change temperature.
* Thermal conductivity is also intrinsic, metals conduct well, insulators don't.
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[[Thermodynamics]]
* Energy required to change temperature: $Q=mc\Delta T$
* Rate of conduction: $\frac{Q}{\Delta t}=\frac{kA\Delta T}{L}$
* Specific heat ($c$) is intrinsic and determines the amount of energy required to change temperature.
* Thermal conductivity is also intrinsic, metals conduct well, insulators don't.
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[[Thermodynamics]]
# Summary
* Thermal energy transfer: Conduction Convection Radiation
* At the atomic level higher energy particles are more likely to transfer energy than lower energy particles.
* Same temperature doesn't mean same thermal energy (specific heat capacity).
* Thermal equilibrium is when 2 objects share the same temperature and there is no net energy transfer.
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[[physics]]
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Several discrete objects: Several discrete objects:
$$I_{tot}=\Sigma I_i=\Sigma m_i r^2$$ $$I_{tot}=\Sigma I_i=\Sigma m_i r^2$$
Kinetic energy from rotation formula:
$$KE_{rot}=\frac{1}{2}Iw^2$$
# Parallel Axis Theorem # Parallel Axis Theorem
Essentially shifting the axis and calculating the new inertia.
$$I'=I_{cm}+Md^2$$ $$I'=I_{cm}+Md^2$$
- $I$' is rotational inertia about the parallel axis (kg⋅m²) - $I$' is rotational inertia about the parallel axis (kg⋅m²)
- $I_{cm}$ is rotational inertia about the center-of-mass axis (kg⋅m²) - $I_{cm}$ is rotational inertia about the center-of-mass axis (kg⋅m²)
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
WEaP WEaP
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[[Physics]] [[physics]]
"Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics, is the fundamental physical theory that describes the behavior of matter and of light; the behaviors it models typically occur at and below the scale of atoms, and have been described as peculiar and mysterious." "Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics, is the fundamental physical theory that describes the behavior of matter and of light; the behaviors it models typically occur at and below the scale of atoms, and have been described as peculiar and mysterious."
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"Excess is easy, anyone can do it. What's beyond most… is making it succinct—the art of abbreviation." "*Excess is easy, anyone can do it. What's beyond most… is making it succinct—the art of abbreviation.*"
# Terminology
| NAME | DESCRIPTION |
| ------------ | ------------------------------------------------- |
| Child | File parented to working file. |
| Parent | File working file is parented to. |
| Subject File | A child representing a sub-subject of the parent. |
# Rule of Thumb
* Notes should be concise.
* Common sense.