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[[Unit 3 (TBD)]]
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| Mechanism | Description |
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| ----------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
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| Natural Selection | Process where the environment selects individuals in population with certain traits that make them better suited to survive and reproduce.<br>Variation: Must be heritable variation.<br>Selective pressures: Environmental conditions that select for certain characteristics against others.<br>Selective advantage: Genetic advantage that improves chance of survival.<br>Fitness: Struggle to survive. Those that survive and reproduce.<br><br>Examples:<br>- In 1848, 2% black moths as trees were covered in light colored lichen.<br>- In 1898, 95% black moths as the lichen was killed by air pollution resulting from the industrial revolution. |
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| Mutation | Mutation are changes to the structure of DNA. Gene mutations are the change in the nucleotide sequence of an allele. Affects genotype frequency.<br>Provides new alleles and therefore new sources of variation in a population.<br>Might not immedietly affect phenotype.<br>If a mutation is harmful it's usually quickly eliminated from the population. |
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| Non random mating | Individuals in a population select mates often on the basis of their phenotypes.<br>Can increase genotypic frequencies/homozygous traits.<br>Sexual selection: Selection by mating partners.<br>Artificial selection: Humans selecting favorable traits.<br>Inbreeding: Mating between relatives. |
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| Gene flow | Transfer of alleles from one population to another. Individuals can move into or out of a population, which affects allele frequency in a population.<br>Can introduce new alleles to a gene pool of a population. |
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| Genetic drift | Refers to changes in allele frequency due to random change alone. The change has nothing to do with their trait.<br>Larger effect on small populations.<br>Founder's/Founder effect: A small group leaves the original population, and by change the allele frequency of the group differs.<br>Bottleneck effect: Original population decreases in population size. Survivors represent a small fraction of the alleles that were present before the population decline. |
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[[Unit 3 (TBD)]]
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Evolution is change in the population, not individuals. When changes in allele frequency occur, ==microevolution== has occurred, which is the smallest scale of evolution. Microevolution can eventually lead to ==macroevolution==, which is the creation of new species.
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Example begin:
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In the Richmond Hill High School forest there lives a population of bunnies.
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Let B rep the allele for brown.
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Let b rep the allele for white.
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How many B? 3B/total 8 alleles
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How many b? 5b/total 8 alleles.
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Allele frequency of B is 0.375=p (represents allele frequency of dominant trait).
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Allele frequency for b is 0.625=q (represents allele frequency of recessive trait).
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| Generation | B | p | b | q |
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| ---------------- | --- | ----------- | --- | ----------- |
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| 1-baseline | 14 | 14/44=0.318 | 30 | 30/44=0.682 |
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| 2 | 11 | 11/44=0.25 | 33 | 33/44=0.75 |
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| 3 | 16 | 16/44=0.364 | 28 | 28/44=0.636 |
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| 4 | 15 | 15/44=0.341 | 29 | 29/44=0.659 |
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| 5 | 15 | 15/44=0.341 | 29 | 29/44=0.659 |
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| 6-climate change | 2 | 2/44=0.046 | 42 | 42/44=0.954 |
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![[Pasted image 20261110105109.png]]
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Microevolution has occured because allele frequency changed.
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From 0.318 to 0.409.
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Natural selection.
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To check if a change is significant, use chi square.
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Example concluded.
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Hardy-Weinberg equation.
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If allele frequencies aren't changing, then the population is in ==Hardy-Weinberg== equilibrium (microevolution not occurring).
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If allele frequencies change, then microevolution occurs, which can be due to:
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* Natural selection.
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* Genetic drift.
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* Gene flow.
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* Mutation.
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* Non random mating.
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For Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to occur, these conditions need to be met:
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* No mutation, no alleles can arise.
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* No migration, no new members and alleles can join/leave.
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* Large gene pool.
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* Random mating.
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* No selection, natural selection doesn't favor one phenotype over the other.
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These 5 five things keep the population stable.
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==Allele fixation== is when only one allele is present for a particular gene, allele frequency for one allele is 100%. It occurs more often in smaller populations.
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![[Pasted image 20261110110316.png]]
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Graph one represents Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium, graph 2 represents microevolution and graph 3 represents allele fixation.
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$$p+q=1\\p^2+2pq+q^2=1$$ $p^2$ represents genotype frequency (homozygous dominant) while $q^2$ represents genotype frequency for homozygous recessive. $2pq$ represents genotype frequency of heterozygous.
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Example 1:
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Black dominant white recessive, 263 black geese 413 white geese.
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"what is genotypic frequency of the white geese"
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Let B rep black feather.
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Let b rep white feather.
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bb=$q^2$=413/676=0.6109
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"what is allele frequency of white allele"
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b=$q^2$=$\sqrt{0.6109}$
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=0.7816
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"what is alele frequency of black allele"
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1-0.7816=0.2184
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"genotypic frequencies of homozygous black geese"e
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$p^2+2*0.2184*0.7816+0.6109=1$
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$p^2=0.0477$
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==ALWAYS FIND RECESSIVE ALLELE FREQUENCY FIRST==
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"heterozygous genotype frequency"
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2pq=2(0.2184)(0.7816)
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pq=0.3414
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Example concluded.
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Reference in New Issue
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