vault backup: 2026-10-13 11:37:56
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@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
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[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
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Human body cells have 46 chromosomes.
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Chromosome 23 is a sex chromosomes.
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First 22 chromosomes are autosomes.
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First chromatid of first pair is taken in metaphase, organised picture of chromosomes.
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DNA is the molecule that holds information.
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Chromosomes are structures that consist of DNA and associated proteins.
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DNA wraps around histones and forms nucleosomes.
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Nucleotide has 1 phosphate, base, and deoxyribose sugar.
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4 different bases.
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Adenine compliments thymine.
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Cytosine compliments guanine.
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Genes are sections of DNA that instructs cells to make proteins.
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Chromosomes are chromatins but more curly to be more condense and sturdy.
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Sperm and egg should have 23 chromosomes, zygote (fertilized egg) should have 46.
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Interphase is when all cell functions occur, DNA replicates, and the cell goes through G1, synthesis, and G2.
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Prophase is when chromatin condenses, nuclear membrane disappears, centrioles move, and spindle fibers form.
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Metaphase is when spindle fibers pull double stranded chromosomes to center of cells.
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Anaphase is when spindle fibers contract and pull sister chromatids apart. Single stranded chomosomes start migrating to opposite sides.
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Telophase is when single stranded chromosomes arrive at opposite sides, nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, and spindle fibers disappear.
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Cytokinesis is when cell splits into 2 identical daughter cells.
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Homologous chromosomes have the same gene but aren't identical. Same length, centromere location, and banding pattern. One from each parent.
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Allele are different version of a gene.
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Haploids (n) are one set of chromosomes.
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Diploids (2n) are two sets of chromosomes.
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One set from sperm, one from egg.
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Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 chromosomes per set.
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Meiosis is the process of producing cells with half the number chromosomes of parent cells. Increases genetic variation, different combinations of alleles.
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Process of meiosis:
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Interphase involves growth of cell and replication of chromosomes.
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Prophase I.
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Synapsis is when the homologous chromosomes pair up.
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Crossover occurs. Non sister chromatids exchange information (homologous chromosome).
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Centrosomes move to opposite sides, spindle forms (nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes coil).
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Tetrad is a pair of homologous chromosomes/bivalent.
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Metaphase I.
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Homologous pairs (tetrad) line up along equator of cells.
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![[Pasted image 20261013105105.png|496]]
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Cross over has already occured in prophase I.
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In mitosis they aren't lined up accross from their pair.
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Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of each homologous chromosome.
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Anaphase I.
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Homologous chromosomes separate from each other, homologues of each bivalent separate. Sister chromatids are still attached unlike mitosis.
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Double stranded chromosomes start moving to opposite sides.
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Telephase I.
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Double stranded chromosomes arrive at opposite ends.
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Spindle fibers disappear.
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Chromosomes uncoil.
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Nuclear membrane reforms.
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Meiosis part 2 is just like mitosis.
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@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
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[[G11 Pre-AP Biology]]
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Non-living as:
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Non-living since:
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* Not capable of surviving on its own.
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* Acellular.
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* No cytoplasm, ribosomes, or membrane bound organelles.
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@@ -6,3 +6,8 @@
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| Predatory | Have specialized structures for trapping prey. |
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| Mutualistic | Have partnerships with other organisms, usually plants or protists.<br>Mycorrhiza: Mutual relationship with plants.<br>Lichen: Mutual with algae/cyanobacteria. |
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| Saprobial | Feed on dead organisms or decaying waste. |
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Morphology:
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- Hyphae: One or more fungi cells, structural unit.
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- Mycelium: Mass of hyphae.
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- Fruiting body: Reproductive structure in fungi where spores are produced.
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![[Pasted image 20261007221632.png|343]]![[Pasted image 20261007221643.png|302]]
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+1
-1
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* Can be unicellular or multicellular.
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* Fungus-like:
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* Absorbs nutrients from other organisms.
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* Heterotroph/decomposers, outer digestion.\
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* Heterotroph/decomposers, outer digestion.
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* Cell wall is not chitin.
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* Examples are slime moulds and water moulds.
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@@ -50,16 +50,16 @@ Plant classification:
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* Monocot:
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* One cotyledon.
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* Veins in parallel.
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* Vascular tissue arranged in circle.
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* Scattered vascular tissue.
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* Root vascular tissue arranged in circle.
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* Stem scattered vascular tissue.
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* Petals multiple of 3.
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* Fibrous.
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* Examples include corn, grass, green onions.
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* Dicot:
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* Two cotyledons.
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* Veins are branched.
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* Xylem arranged in star shape.
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* Vascular tissue arranged in ring.
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* Root xylem arranged in star shape.
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* Stem vascular tissue arranged in ring.
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* Petals in multiples of 4 or 5.
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* Taproot.
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* Examples include carrots and dandelions.
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